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Roman circus

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The site of the former Circus Maximus in modern-day Rome
The site of the former Circus Maximus in modern-day Rome

The Roman circus (from the Latin word that means "circle") was a large open-air venue used for public events in the ancient Roman Empire. The circuses were similar to the ancient Greek hippodromes, although circuses served varying purposes and differed in design and construction. Along with theatres, amphitheatres, and the similar but much smaller stadiums, circuses were one of the main entertainment sites of the time. Circuses were venues for chariot races, horse races, gladiatorial combat, and performances that commemorated important events of the Empire were performed there.

According to Edward Gibbon, in Chapter XXXI of his work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, the Roman people, at the start of the 5th century:

...still considered the Circus as their home, their temple, and the seat of the republic.[1][2][3]

Discover more about Roman circus related topics

Classical Latin

Classical Latin

Classical Latin is the form of Literary Latin recognized as a literary standard by writers of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. It was used from 75 BC to the 3rd century AD, when it developed into Late Latin. In some later periods, it was regarded as good or proper Latin, with following versions viewed as debased, degenerate, or corrupted. The word Latin is now understood by default to mean "Classical Latin"; for example, modern Latin textbooks almost exclusively teach Classical Latin.

Roman Empire

Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia, and was ruled by emperors. From the accession of Caesar Augustus as the first Roman emperor to the military anarchy of the 3rd century, it was a Principate with Italia as the metropole of its provinces and the city of Rome as its sole capital. The Empire was later ruled by multiple emperors who shared control over the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. The city of Rome remained the nominal capital of both parts until AD 476 when the imperial insignia were sent to Constantinople following the capture of the Western capital of Ravenna by the Germanic barbarians. The adoption of Christianity as the state church of the Roman Empire in AD 380 and the fall of the Western Roman Empire to Germanic kings conventionally marks the end of classical antiquity and the beginning of the Middle Ages. Because of these events, along with the gradual Hellenization of the Eastern Roman Empire, historians distinguish the medieval Roman Empire that remained in the Eastern provinces as the Byzantine Empire.

Ancient Greece

Ancient Greece

Ancient Greece was a northeastern Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of classical antiquity, that comprised a loose collection of culturally and linguistically related city-states and other territories. Most of these regions were officially unified only once, for 13 years, under Alexander the Great's empire from 336 to 323 BC. In Western history, the era of classical antiquity was immediately followed by the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine period.

Hippodrome

Hippodrome

The hippodrome was an ancient Greek stadium for horse racing and chariot racing. The name is derived from the Greek words hippos and dromos. The term is used in the modern French language and some others, with the meaning of "horse racecourse". Hence, some present-day horse-racing tracks also include the word "hippodrome" in their names, such as the Hippodrome de Vincennes and the Central Moscow Hippodrome. In the English-speaking world the term is occasionally used for theatres.

Roman theatre (structure)

Roman theatre (structure)

Roman theatres derive from and are part of the overall evolution of earlier Greek theatres. Indeed, much of the architectural influence the Romans came from the Greeks, and theatre structural design was no different from other buildings. However, Roman theatres have specific differences, such as generally being built upon their own foundations instead of earthen works or a hillside and being completely enclosed on all sides.

Roman amphitheatre

Roman amphitheatre

Roman amphitheatres are theatres – large, circular or oval open-air venues with raised seating – built by the ancient Romans. They were used for events such as gladiator combats, venationes and executions. About 230 Roman amphitheatres have been found across the area of the Roman Empire. Early amphitheatres date from the Republican period, though they became more monumental during the Imperial era.

Entertainment

Entertainment

Entertainment is a form of activity that holds the attention and interest of an audience or gives pleasure and delight. It can be an idea or a task, but is more likely to be one of the activities or events that have developed over thousands of years specifically for the purpose of keeping an audience's attention.

Chariot racing

Chariot racing

Chariot racing was one of the most popular ancient Greek, Roman, and Byzantine sports. In Greece, chariot racing played an essential role in aristocratic funeral games from a very early time. With the institution of formal races and permanent racetracks, chariot racing was adopted by many Greek states and their religious festivals. Horses and chariots were very costly. Their ownership was a preserve of the wealthiest aristocrats, whose reputations and status benefitted from offering such extravagant, exciting displays. Their successes could be further broadcast and celebrated through commissioned odes and other poetry.

Gladiator

Gladiator

A gladiator was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gladiators were volunteers who risked their lives and their legal and social standing by appearing in the arena. Most were despised as slaves, schooled under harsh conditions, socially marginalized, and segregated even in death.

Edward Gibbon

Edward Gibbon

Edward Gibbon was an English historian, writer, and member of parliament. His most important work, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788, is known for the quality and irony of its prose, its use of primary sources, and its polemical criticism of organised religion.

The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire is a six-volume work by the English historian Edward Gibbon. It traces Western civilization from the height of the Roman Empire to the fall of Byzantium in the fifteenth century. Volume I was published in 1776 and went through six printings. Volumes II and III were published in 1781; volumes IV, V, and VI in 1788–1789.

Architectural design

Floorplan of Circus Maximus. This design is typical of Roman circuses.
Floorplan of Circus Maximus. This design is typical of Roman circuses.

The performance space of the Roman circus was normally, despite its name, an oblong rectangle of two linear sections of race track, separated by a median strip running along the length of about two thirds the track, joined at one end with a semicircular section and at the other end with an undivided section of track closed (in most cases) by a distinctive starting gate known as the carceres, thereby creating a circuit for the races. The Circus Maximus epitomises the design.

The median strip was called the spina and usually featured ornate columns, statues and commemorative obelisks. The turning points on either end of the spina were usually marked by conical poles, called the metae (singular: meta).[4]

The performance surface of the circus was normally surrounded by ascending seating along the length of both straight sides and around the curved end, though there were sometimes interruptions in the seating to provide access to the circus or the seating, or to provide for special viewing platforms for dignitaries and officials. One circus, that at Antinoöpolis (Egypt), displays a distinct gap of some 50m between the carceres and the start of the ascending seating where there is apparently no structure. This appears to be an exception.

The great majority of circuses fit the description above. Those that do not display two different variations: that at Emerita Augusta (Mérida, Spain), where the carceres end is substituted by a slightly curved 'straight' end joined to the straight sides of ascending seating by rounded corners of ascending seating; and a few in which the carceres end is substituted by a second semi-circular end to produce an oval shaped arena. These latter circuses are normally small (Nicopolis (Greece) and Aphrodisias (Turkey)), and should probably be considered stadia.

There are similar buildings, called 'stadia, which were used for Greek style athletics. These buildings were similar in design but typically smaller than circuses; however, the distinction is not always clear. An example of this type is the Stadium of Domitian.

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Race track

Race track

A race track is a facility built for racing of vehicles, athletes, or animals. A race track also may feature grandstands or concourses. Race tracks are also used in the study of animal locomotion.

Circus Maximus

Circus Maximus

The Circus Maximus is an ancient Roman chariot-racing stadium and mass entertainment venue in Rome, Italy. In the valley between the Aventine and Palatine hills, it was the first and largest stadium in ancient Rome and its later Empire. It measured 621 m (2,037 ft) in length and 118 m (387 ft) in width and could accommodate over 150,000 spectators. In its fully developed form, it became the model for circuses throughout the Roman Empire. The site is now a public park.

Obelisk

Obelisk

An obelisk is a tall, four-sided, narrow tapering monument which ends in a pyramid-like shape or pyramidion at the top. Originally constructed by Ancient Egyptians and called tekhenu, the Greeks used the Greek term obeliskos to describe them, and this word passed into Latin and ultimately English. Though William Thomas used the term correctly in his Historie of Italie of 1549, by the late sixteenth century, Shakespeare failed to distinguish between pyramids and obelisks in his plays and sonnets. Ancient obelisks are monolithic; they consist of a single stone. Most modern obelisks are made of several stones.

Antinoöpolis

Antinoöpolis

Antinoöpolis was a city founded at an older Egyptian village by the Roman emperor Hadrian to commemorate his deified young beloved, Antinoüs, on the east bank of the Nile, not far from the site in Upper Egypt where Antinoüs drowned in 130 AD. Antinoöpolis was a little to the south of the Egyptian village of Besa (Βῆσσα), named after the god and oracle of Bes. Antinoöpolis was built at the foot of the hill upon which Besa was seated. The city is located nearly opposite of Hermopolis Magna, and was connected to Berenice Troglodytica by the Via Hadriana.

Panhellenic Games

Panhellenic Games

Panhellenic Games is the collective term for four separate sports festivals held in ancient Greece. The four Games were:

Stadium of Domitian

Stadium of Domitian

The Stadium of Domitian, also known as the Circus Agonalis, was located to the north of the Campus Martius in Rome, Italy. The Stadium was commissioned around AD 80 by Emperor Titus Flavius Domitianus as a gift to the people of Rome and was used almost entirely for athletic contests. In Christian tradition, Agnes of Rome was martyred there.

Common characteristics

Dates

Differently from other major Roman structures circuses frequently evolved over long periods of time from a simple track in a field, through generations of wooden seating structures (frequently destroyed by fire or rot), before they finally began to be converted to stone. Although circuses such as the Circus Maximus (Italy) may have existed in some form from as early as around 500 BC, circuses were mainly constructed during the 400 years between 200 BC and 200 AD.[5]

Dimensions

The comparative dimensions of a circus may be measured in two basic ways: by the length of the track, and by the seating capacity. Other dimensions, such as the external dimensions of the structure may vary considerably depending on the location, the site, and on specific architectural characteristics.

The simplest comparative measurement of a circus is its track length. This is the most easily measured dimension, as it only requires small excavations at either end of the centreline. It is very probable that this can be done even when the circus is buried under subsequent constructions. Track lengths may vary from the 245 m of the circus at Gerasa (Jordan), to the 621 m of the Circus Maximus (Italy).

The alternative comparative dimension is that of seating capacity. This is much more complex to measure as it requires that the dimensions of the original vertical and horizontal extent of the inclined seating be re-established. In many cases the full structure of the inclined seating has been destroyed beyond the point where this can be measured, or at the least would require a great deal more excavation than that required for the measurement of the track length. Seating capacity may vary from around 15,000 people at Gerasa (Jordan), to 150,000 (some estimates put it up to 250,000) at the Circus Maximus (Italy).

Orientation

Circuses do not appear to have been constructed with any special compass orientation. Those that are well identified can be found with their round ends oriented around the compass. Examples include: N. Gerasa (Jordan); NE. Antinoöpolis (Egypt); E. Circus of Maxentius (Italy); SE. Circus Maximus (Italy); S. Tyrus (Lebanon); SW. Gortyn (Greece); W. Circus of Nero (Italy).

Relative location

Circuses can be found at three distinct locations relative to the towns to which they belong:

  • outside the city walls at anything up to 1.5 km distant, as at: Gerasa (Jordan) (c300m), and Leptis Magna (Libya) (1.5 km).
  • simply within the town walls, as at: Thessalonica (Greece).
  • inside the walls, in the heart of the town, and an integral part of the architectural power structure of the town, as at: Rome, Sirmium (Serbia) and Tarraco (Spain).

Carceres

The carceres, or starting gates, had a distinctive, slanted, slightly curved, plan form, designed to compensate for what would otherwise be significant differences in the distances from the individual starting gates to the start of the first section of straight track on the right hand side of the spina (as seen from the carceres). The carceres were designed for the races to be run round the spina in an anticlockwise direction.

The form of the carceres appears to have been standardised throughout the Roman world. The similarity in form among the carceres of circuses of many different sizes suggests that carceres were constructed according to a series of proportional mathematical relationships or formulas. It is not clear when the earliest carceres of the standardised form was constructed, nor whether there exists documentary evidence for the existence of such formulas.

Some of the best examples of carceres can be found at: Gerasa (Jordan) and the Circus of Maxentius (Italy).

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Circus Maximus

Circus Maximus

The Circus Maximus is an ancient Roman chariot-racing stadium and mass entertainment venue in Rome, Italy. In the valley between the Aventine and Palatine hills, it was the first and largest stadium in ancient Rome and its later Empire. It measured 621 m (2,037 ft) in length and 118 m (387 ft) in width and could accommodate over 150,000 spectators. In its fully developed form, it became the model for circuses throughout the Roman Empire. The site is now a public park.

Seating capacity

Seating capacity

Seating capacity is the number of people who can be seated in a specific space, in terms of both the physical space available, and limitations set by law. Seating capacity can be used in the description of anything ranging from an automobile that seats two to a stadium that seats hundreds of thousands of people. The largest sporting venue in the world, the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, has a permanent seating capacity for more than 235,000 people and infield seating that raises capacity to an approximate 400,000.

Circus of Maxentius

Circus of Maxentius

The Circus of Maxentius is an ancient structure in Rome, Italy, part of a complex of buildings erected by emperor Maxentius on the Via Appia between AD 306 and 312. It is situated between the second and third miles of the Via Appia, between the basilica and catacombs of San Sebastiano and the imposing late republican tomb of Caecilia Metella, which dominates the hill that rises immediately to the east of the complex. It is part of the Appian Way Regional Park.

Circus of Nero

Circus of Nero

The Circus of Nero or Circus of Caligula was a circus in ancient Rome, located mostly in the present-day Vatican City.

Best preserved

The best preserved circuses include: Emerita Augusta (Spain), Caesarea Maritima (coastal) (Israel), Circus of Maxentius (Italy), Gerasa (Jordan), Tyrus (Lebanon), Leptis Magna (Libya).

List of Roman circuses

Unless otherwise indicated the coordinates in the following list are of a point that lies within the space of a circus. For the remaining circuses (those whose detailed location is not known) the point is for a location within the space of the historic nucleus of the associated town, or for a location within the associated archaeological site. These points are probably within 1.5 kilometres of the site of the circus, as a circus was almost always within this distance from its associated town.

(ordered initially by country; number of circuses at latest count (2012-04-01): 63)

City
(Roman name)
Link to detailed circus article 		City
(modern name) 		Country Coordinates Notes
References
(sorts on length and precision of location) 		Images
Auzia[6] Sour El-Ghozlane (= pre-independence Aumale)[6] Algeria 36°08′53″N 3°41′27″E / 36.14799°N 3.690924°E / 36.14799; 3.690924 (Auzia (Sour El-Ghozlane) (not the circus; historic nucleus of current town)) (not the circus; historic nucleus of current town) cited in Humphrey;[7] no online circus-specific information found.
Colonia Claudia Caesarea Cherchell Algeria 36°36′05″N 2°11′05″E / 36.601412°N 2.184702°E / 36.601412; 2.184702 (Colonia Claudia Caesarea (Cherchell) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] approximate location;[8] neither the form nor any original structure is visible. images (may not be oriented to north)[8]
Saldae Béjaïa Algeria 36°45′18″N 5°05′02″E / 36.755068°N 5.083765°E / 36.755068; 5.083765 (Saldae (Béjaïa) (not the circus; historic nucleus of current town)) (not the circus; historic nucleus of current town) cited in Humphrey;[7] no online circus-specific information found.
Setifis Sétif Algeria 36°11′50″N 5°24′19″E / 36.197105°N 5.405214°E / 36.197105; 5.405214 (Sitifis Colonia (Sétif) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] approximate location confirmed by old air photographs (90% of the circus has now been built over);[9] only the southern, curved, end remains visible; U-shaped; approximate (formerly visible) track length: c450m;[9] approximate (formerly visible) track width: c70m.[9] images (may not be oriented to north)[9]
Philippopolis (Thrace)

Plovdiv Roman Stadium 		Plovdiv Bulgaria 42°08′51″N 24°44′53″E / 42.147477°N 24.748068°E / 42.147477; 24.748068 (Trimontium (Plovdiv) Roman circus) Only a small well preserved part of the northern end is currently visible; c95% of the structure is buried under the current main street; track length c250m;[10] track width c32m;[10] the small size of the structure suggests that it is, in fact, more correct to consider it a stadium; this is the view taken by the principal site on the structure[11]
Miniature of the Ancient Stadium.jpg
Alexandria Alexandria Egypt 31°10′57″N 29°53′47″E / 31.182489°N 29.896417°E / 31.182489; 29.896417 (Alexandria Roman town (approximate nucleus of town; centred on Pompey's Pillar))

(not the circus; approximate nucleus of Roman town; centred on Pompey's Pillar)

cited in Humphrey;[7] no online circus-specific information found.
Antinoöpolis Mallawi (c10km) Egypt 27°48′36″N 30°53′08″E / 27.810092°N 30.885503°E / 27.810092; 30.885503 (Antinopolis Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] visible track length: 300–350 m;[12] visible track width: c45m;[12] U-shaped; the carceres are c50m beyond the ends of the ascending seating at the open south-west end; clearly visible and unobstructed.
Oxyrhynchus Beni Mazar (c15km) Egypt 28°32′09″N 30°39′19″E / 28.535969°N 30.655336°E / 28.535969; 30.655336 (Oxyrhynchus (not the circus; archaeological site of Roman town)) (not the circus; archaeological site of Roman town) cited in Humphrey;[7] no online circus-specific information found.
Camulodunum Colchester England 51°53′01″N 0°53′53″E / 51.883604°N 0.898175°E / 51.883604; 0.898175 (Camulodunum (Colchester) Roman circus) location information;[13] archaeological information;[14] official archaeological information;[15] length: c450m;[15] width: c75m.[15]
Arelate
(Colonia Iulia Paterna Arelatensium Sextanorum) 		Arles France 43°40′24″N 4°37′07″E / 43.6734°N 4.61855°E / 43.6734; 4.61855 (Arelate (Arles) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] official archaeological information;[16] c40% of curved south-west end is minimally visible; the remaining structure lies to the north-east under a road junction and housing; length: c450m;[17][18] width: c101m;[17][18] visible track width: c80m.[19]
Arles, cirque romain5.JPG
further images (may not be oriented to north)[20]
Lugdunum Lyon France 45°45′26″N 4°48′55″E / 45.757314°N 4.815188°E / 45.757314; 4.815188 (Lugdunum (Lyon) Roman circus (approximate hypothesised location)) (approximate hypothesised location[21]) cited in Chase;[22] hypothesised location.[21]
Mediolanum Santonum Saintes France 45°44′47″N 0°38′00″W / 45.7464°N 0.6333°W / 45.7464; -0.6333 (Mediolanum Santonum (Saintes) Roman town (not the circus; historic nucleus of the town)) (not the circus; historic nucleus of the town) cited in Humphrey;[7] no online circus-specific information found.
Vienna Vienne France 45°30′59″N 4°52′06″E / 45.516492°N 4.868196°E / 45.516492; 4.868196 (Vienna (Vienne) Roman circus) (possibly very approximate; the satellite image at this location is extremely distorted) Cited in Humphrey;[7] the only remaining feature is a monumental arched structure topped by a tall, narrow, pyramid; this structure was on the spina.
Pyramide de Vienne (Isère).jpg
further images (may not be oriented to north)[23]
Augusta Treverorum Trier Germany 49°45′04″N 6°38′55″E / 49.751175°N 6.648531°E / 49.751175; 6.648531 (Augusta Treverorum (Trier) Roman circus) Cited in Humphrey;[7] location;[24][25] plan of Roman town[26] showing location of circus; length: c450m.[27]
Amphitheater Trier und Circus.jpg
Corinth (Colonia Iulia Flavia Augusta Corinthiensis) Corinth Greece 37°54′35″N 22°52′33″E / 37.909792°N 22.875938°E / 37.909792; 22.875938 (Corinth Roman circus (hypothesised and partially excavated location)) (hypothesised and partially excavated location) discussion about the evidence for a circus;[28] plan showing the hypothesised location of the circus[29] and;[30] hypothesised and partially excavated location.[31]
Gortyn, Gortys or Gortyna Agioi Deka (c1.5 km) Greece 35°03′07″N 24°57′04″E / 35.052057°N 24.951119°E / 35.052057; 24.951119 (Gortyn Roman circus) cited in Chase;[22] archaeological city plan;[32] visible track length: c375m;[33] visible track width: c50m;[33] U-shaped plan form clearly visible; space 30% open agricultural land, 70% covered by orchard trees. images (may not be oriented to north)[34]
Nicopolis Preveza (c7km) Greece 39°01′25″N 20°44′05″E / 39.023563°N 20.734805°E / 39.023563; 20.734805 (Nikopolis Roman circus) referred to as a stadium;[35] very small for a circus; visible track length: c215m;[35] visible track width: c20m;[35] double-U-shaped plan form with both rounded ends clearly visible; the space is unoccupied by any modern structures.
Thessalonica Thessaloniki Greece 40°37′47″N 22°57′03″E / 40.629669°N 22.950890°E / 40.629669; 22.950890 (Thessalonica Roman circus)
Rhodes Rhodes Greece 36°26′21″N 28°12′43″E / 36.43919°N 28.211909°E / 36.43919; 28.211909 (Rhodes Roman circus)
Caesarea Maritima (coastal) Caesarea Israel 32°29′55″N 34°53′26″E / 32.4986°N 34.8906°E / 32.4986; 34.8906 (Caesarea Maritima (Caesarea) coastal Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] referred to as a hippodrome;[38] on the coast; parallel to the coast; visible track length: c290m;[39] visible track width: c45m;[39] U-shaped plan form clearly visible; structure substantially complete; few modern structures constructed within the space.
Caesarea Palaestina.jpg
further images (may not be oriented to north)[38]
Caesarea Maritima (inland) Caesarea Israel 32°29′55″N 34°53′55″E / 32.4986°N 34.8986°E / 32.4986; 34.8986 (Caesarea Maritima (Caesarea) inland Roman circus) c1km inland from the coast; visible track length: c410m;[40] visible track width: c80m;[40] form substantially visible; apparently U-shaped; the space is unoccupied by any modern structures. images (may not be oriented to north)[38]
Aquileia Aquileia Italy 45°46′30″N 13°21′42″E / 45.775007°N 13.361778°E / 45.775007; 13.361778 (Aquileia (Aquileia) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] location;[41] track length measured from location information: c460m;[41][42] track width measured from location information: c80m.[41][42] images (may not be oriented to north)[41]
Bovillae Marino, Lazio Italy 41°45′27″N 12°37′18″E / 41.757499°N 12.621679°E / 41.757499; 12.621679 (Bovillae Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] (in Italian);[43] information and photos in English;[44] (track?) length: 328.50m;[43] (track?) width: 60m;[43] location centred on the only visible remains – three stone arches[45] (part of the carceres).
Mediolanum Milan Italy 45°27′48″N 9°10′48″E / 45.463276°N 9.179936°E / 45.463276; 9.179936 (Mediolanum (Milan) Roman circus) Cited in Chase;[22] location;[46][47] track length: 460m;[48] track width: 67/68m;[48] the principal visible remains are a tower at the north western corner of the circus;[49] the main body of the circus lay SSE of this tower.
Basamento circo.jpg
images (may not be oriented to north)[46]
Roma

Circus Flaminius 		Rome Italy 41°53′34″N 12°28′39″E / 41.892758°N 12.477422°E / 41.892758; 12.477422 (Circus Flaminius, Rome) Cited in Humphrey;[7] it is not entirely clear whether this 'structure' was, in fact, a circus or stadium of the form of the others in this list; Wikimapia location;[50] estimates of size are: length 260–500 m,[51][52] width 100m.[52]
Circus Flaminius Bartoli 1699.jpg
Roma

Circus of Maxentius, a.k.a. Circus of Caracalla 		Rome Italy 41°51′17″N 12°31′21″E / 41.854645°N 12.522411°E / 41.854645; 12.522411 (Circus of Maxentius, Rome) Visible track length: c490m;[53] visible track width: c80m;[53] form clearly visible; U-shaped; the space is unoccupied by any modern structures; many parts of the structure are visible.
Roma Appia Antica - Circo di Massenzio Torri.JPG
further images (may not be oriented to north)[54]
Roma

Circus Maximus 		Rome Italy 41°53′10″N 12°29′07″E / 41.886016°N 12.485404°E / 41.886016; 12.485404 (Circus_Maximus, Rome) Track length: c621m;[55] track width: c150m;[55] form substantially visible; U-shaped; the space is practically unoccupied by any modern structures; only a few parts of the structure are visible or remain.
CircusMaximusSO.jpg
Roma

Circus of Nero, a.k.a. Circus of Caligula, or Vatican Circus 		Rome Italy 41°54′06″N 12°27′19″E / 41.901638°N 12.455256°E / 41.901638; 12.455256 (Circus of Nero, Rome) Cited in Humphrey;[7] location just to the south of St. Peter's Basilica well established, though exact position and orientation unknown; the only surviving remains are the obelisk which was brought from Egypt to adorn the spina in 37 AD;[56] the obelisk was moved to its current location in Saint Peter's Square in 1586.[57]
Plan of Circus Neronis and St. Peters.gif
images (may not be oriented to north)[58]
Roma

Circus Varianus; it:Circo Variano (in Italian) 		Rome Italy 41°53′14″N 12°31′14″E / 41.887353°N 12.520474°E / 41.887353; 12.520474 (Circus Varianus, Rome) Cited in Humphrey;[7] Wikimapia location;[59] length: 565m;[60] width: 125m.[60] images (may not be oriented to north)[61]
Gadara Umm Qais Jordan 32°39′25″N 35°40′01″E / 32.656914°N 35.666857°E / 32.656914; 35.666857 (Gadara Roman hippodrome) Cited in Humphrey;[7] a German language archaeological site map of Gadara[62] indicates a location for what is described as a hippodrome.[63]
Gerasa Jerash Jordan 32°16′25″N 35°53′27″E / 32.273655°N 35.890730°E / 32.273655; 35.890730 (Gerasa Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] visible track length: c245m;[64] visible track width: c50m;[64] form clearly visible; U-shaped; the space is unoccupied by any modern structures; a great deal of the structure still stands.
Hippodrome-Jerash.JPG
further images (may not be oriented to north)[65]
Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus

Beirut Hippodrome 		Beirut Lebanon 33°53′52″N 35°29′59″E / 33.897911°N 35.499584°E / 33.897911; 35.499584 (Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus (Beirut) Roman hippodrome) cited in Humphrey;[7] the location is of the archaeological site of the Beirut Hippodrome as given on Wikimapia;[66] this may, or may not, be the same structure as the circus.
Tyre Hippodrome Tyre Lebanon 33°16′06″N 35°12′35″E / 33.268313°N 35.209776°E / 33.268313; 35.209776 (Tyre Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] visible track length: c435m;[67] visible track width: c80m;[67] form clearly visible; U-shaped; the space is unoccupied by any modern structures; a great deal of the structure is still visible.
Al-Bass Arch Site Hippodrome.JPG
further images (may not be oriented to north)[68]
Cyrene Shahhat Libya 32°49′20″N 21°51′51″E / 32.822221°N 21.864104°E / 32.822221; 21.864104 (Cyrene Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] visible track length: c300m?;[69][70] visible track width: c45m;[69][70] form reasonably visible; U-shaped; the space is unoccupied by any modern structures; little of the structure is still visible; sometimes referred to as a hippodrome. images (may not be oriented to north)[70]
Leptis Magna Khoms OR Al Khums (c3km) Libya 32°37′59″N 14°18′38″E / 32.633056°N 14.310547°E / 32.633056; 14.310547 (Leptis Magna Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] located both on and parallel to the sea shore; visible track length: c445m;[71] visible track width: c75m;[71] form clearly visible; U-shaped; the space is unoccupied by any modern structures; some of the structure is still visible. images (may not be oriented to north)[72]
Aeminium Coimbra Portugal 40°12′32″N 8°25′31″W / 40.209016°N 8.425387°W / 40.209016; -8.425387 (Aeminium (Coimbra) Roman town (not the circus; nucleus of the Roman town)) (not the circus; nucleus of the Roman town) believed to have existed, but unconfirmed; archaeological information about the Roman town;[73][74] reference to a suggested location for the circus (Praça do Comércio); suggested location.[75]
Balsa Tavira Portugal 37°05′26″N 7°41′07″W / 37.090488°N 7.685301°W / 37.090488; -7.685301 (Balsa (Tavira) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] the location is approximately that indicated conjecturally, though with considerable certainty, at;[76] that site states "the topographic marks of [the circus] permit a reasonably rigorous survey"; length: c375m;[76] width: c80m.[76]
Miróbriga Santiago do Cacém (c2km) Portugal 38°00′08″N 8°41′02″W / 38.002318°N 8.683770°W / 38.002318; -8.683770 (Mirobriga Roman circus) cited in Chase;[22] visible track length: c330m;[77] visible track width: c70m;[77] form clearly visible; U-shaped; the space is unoccupied by any modern structures; little of the structure is still visible. images (may not be oriented to north)[78]
Olissipona Lisbon Portugal 38°42′50″N 9°08′21″W / 38.713788°N 9.139192°W / 38.713788; -9.139192 (Olissipona (Lisbon) Roman circus) in what is today the 'Rossio'; an account (in Portuguese) of excavations which uncovered a section of the spina of the circus can be found at.[79]
Sirmium Sremska Mitrovica Serbia 44°58′03″N 19°36′44″E / 44.967364°N 19.612151°E / 44.967364; 19.612151 (Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica) Roman circus (approx)) cited in Humphrey;[7] the location is a close approximation based on information at;[80] length: c450m;[81] width: c150m;[81] the structure lies buried some 2–4 m under the current town centre, just to the north of the partially excavated palace; only very small sections have been excavated.[80]
Calagurris Calahorra Spain 42°18′17″N 1°57′47″W / 42.304811°N 1.963025°W / 42.304811; -1.963025 (Calagurris (Calahorra) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] the circus lies under the pedestrian thoroughfare 'Paseo Del Mercadal';[82] length c300-350m.[83]
Cáparra Capera Spain 40°10′01″N 6°06′04″W / 40.166847°N 6.101135°W / 40.166847; -6.101135 (Cáparra (Capera) Roman town (not the circus; nucleus of the Roman town)) (not the circus; nucleus of the Roman town) cited in Humphrey;[7] the location, from Wikimapia[84] and Spanish Wikipedia[85] is of the ruins of the Roman city only; there is no indication of the location of the circus.
Corduba Córdoba Spain 37°53′06″N 4°46′22″W / 37.885079°N 4.772803°W / 37.885079; -4.772803 (Corduba (Córdoba) Roman circus) location from Wikimapia and others;[86][87] length: c370m;[86][87] entirely buried under the existing city centre; virtually no remains visible.
Emerita Augusta

Circus Maximus (Mérida) 		Mérida Spain 38°55′12″N 6°19′56″W / 38.920037°N 6.332116°W / 38.920037; -6.332116 (Emerita Augusta (Mérida) Roman circus) Cited in Humphrey;[7] visible track length: c400m;[88] visible track width: c85m;[88] form clearly visible; U-shaped but without the distinctive slanted 'flat' carceres end seen in many other circuses; instead the 'flat' end is slightly rounded; the space is unoccupied by any modern structures; much of the structure is still visible.
VR Merida 03-Circo Romano.jpg
further images (may not be oriented to north)[89]
Italica Santiponce Spain 37°26′19″N 6°02′22″W / 37.43856°N 6.039444°W / 37.43856; -6.039444 (Italica (Santiponce) Roman town (not the circus; nucleus of the Roman town)) (not the circus; nucleus of the Roman town) cited in Humphrey;[7] very approximate location;[90] the circus lies under the centre of the existing old town of Santiponce; nothing is visible; note that the very large amphitheatre at Italica is sometimes referred to as a circus.
Saguntum Sagunto Spain 39°40′54″N 0°16′36″W / 39.681644°N 0.276675°W / 39.681644; -0.276675 (Saguntum (Sagunto) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] the location of the circus has been confirmed by the excavation, and preservation, of a gate to the circus;[91][92] the circus lies buried under the existing town; only the gate is visible;[93] length: c350m;[94] width: c73m.[94] images (may not be oriented to north)[95]
Tarraco Tarragona Spain 41°07′01″N 1°15′21″E / 41.116963°N 1.255832°E / 41.116963; 1.255832 (Tarraco (Tarragona) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] most of the circus lies buried under the existing town; a substantial part of the curved eastern end, and part of the south-western side, are visible; track length: c290m;[96] track width: c75m.[96]
Roman circus of Tarraco 01.jpg
images (may not be oriented to north)[97]
Toletum Toledo Spain 39°51′49″N 4°01′48″W / 39.863689°N 4.029978°W / 39.863689; -4.029978 (Toletum (Toledo) Roman circus) Cited in Humphrey;[7] between a third and a half of the circus, including the round end, is partially visible; the remainder of the circus, has either been obliterated, or lies under modern constructions; suggested length: c430m;[98][99] visible width: c75m.[100]
Circo Romano Toledo 2.JPG
images (may not be oriented to north)[98]
Zafra Spain 38°25′25″N 6°24′58″W / 38.423701°N 6.416107°W / 38.423701; -6.416107 (Zafra town (not the circus; historic nucleus of town)) (not the circus; historic nucleus of town) cited in Humphrey;[7] there appears to be significant uncertainty about the status, and even name, of Zafra in the Roman era;[101] the town appears to have no significant Roman remains other than those of some 20 Roman villas in the surrounding area;[101] no online circus-specific information found.
Nova Trajana Bostra Bosra Eski Sham OR Busra Eski Şam OR Busra ash-Sham Syria 32°30′54″N 36°28′48″E / 32.5149°N 36.4799°E / 32.5149; 36.4799 (Nova Trajana Bostra (Bosra Eski Sham or Busra Eski Şam or Busra ash-Sham) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] French maps of Roman Bosra showing the location of the circus (or hippodrome);[102][103] visible track length: c430m;[104] visible track width: c110m;[104] form clearly visible; U-shaped; the space is virtually unoccupied by any modern structures; much of the structure still stands. images (may not be oriented to north)[105]
Laodicea ad Mare Latakia Syria 35°31′11″N 35°46′30″E / 35.519688°N 35.775046°E / 35.519688; 35.775046 (Laodicea ad Mare (Latakia) Roman town (not the circus; historic nucleus of the town)) (not the circus; historic nucleus of the town) cited in Humphrey;[7] no online circus-specific information found.
Abthugni[106][107] Henchir Souar OR Henchir Esch Schorr OR Henchir es Souar Tunisia 36°11′52″N 10°00′32″E / 36.197695°N 10.008889°E / 36.197695; 10.008889 (Abthugni (Henchir Souar) Roman town (not the circus; nucleus of the Roman town))[108] (not the circus; nucleus of the Roman town). cited in Humphrey;[7] coordinates of place;[108] location of place on topographic map[109] (ref: NJ 32-15/510322); references to Henchir Souar;[110][111] aerial photograph of place[112] confirms coordinates reference; topographic features on aerial photograph match with;[113] no online circus-specific information found.
Carthago

Circus of Carthage 		Carthage Tunisia 36°51′01″N 10°18′55″E / 36.850222°N 10.315239°E / 36.850222; 10.315239 (Carthago (Carthage) Roman circus) Cited in Humphrey;[7] location;[114] length: c500m;[114][115] width: c90m;[114][115] U-shaped; very little remains visible; partly occupied by modern constructions.
Tunis Carthage Cirque 2.jpg
images (may not be oriented to north)[114]
Commodum OR Municipium Aurelium Commodum[106][116] Henchir Bou Cha or Henchir Fraxine Tunisia 36°31′56″N 9°53′04″E / 36.532221°N 9.884513°E / 36.532221; 9.884513 (Municipium Aurelium Commodum (Henchir Bou Cha) Roman town (not the circus; nucleus of the Roman town)) (not the circus; nucleus of the Roman town) cited in Humphrey;[7] archaeological document of Tunisian government[116] (in French); location of place on topographic map[109] (ref: NJ 32-15/498358); no online circus-specific information found.
Hadrumetum OR Colonia Concordia Ulpia Trajana Augusta Frugifera Hadrumetina Sousse Tunisia 35°49′47″N 10°37′28″E / 35.829783°N 10.624434°E / 35.829783; 10.624434 (Hadrumentum (Sousse) Roman circus (probable location)) (probable location) cited in Humphrey;[7] probable location[117] based on information in 1903 documents[118] (in French), reinforced by an undated aerial photograph;[119] visible length (as measured on Wikimapia based on cross-reference with aerial photograph): c350m or greater.
Thugga OR Municipium Septimium Aurelium Liberum Thugga[120] Dougga Tunisia 36°25′35″N 9°12′58″E / 36.4265°N 9.2161°E / 36.4265; 9.2161 (Municipium Septimium Aurelium Liberum Thugga (Dougga) Roman circus (approximate location)) (approximate location) cited in Chase;[22] approximate location,[121] on the north western edge of town, suggested (though not explicitly identified) on plan,[122] and plan;[123] various lengths are referenced: c175m,[124] 393m;[125] the site is open agricultural land with no subsequent occupation. images (may not be oriented to north)[126]
Thysdrus El Djem Tunisia 35°18′07″N 10°41′37″E / 35.301944°N 10.693480°E / 35.301944; 10.693480 (Thysdrus (El Djem) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] visible track length: c500m;[127] visible track width: c70m;[127] form lightly visible; U-shaped; the space is unoccupied by any modern structures; little of the structure is still visible. images (may not be oriented to north)[128]
Utica near Zana Tunisia 37°03′04″N 10°03′47″E / 37.051230°N 10.063141°E / 37.051230; 10.063141 (Utica Roman circus (probable location)) (probable location) cited in Humphrey;[7] Tunisian archaeological site number: 007.157 (Utique; Henchir Bechateur; UTIKA);[129] reference to circus;[130] uncorroborated location;[131] more probable location[132] as indicated by the maps in[133] confirms the given location; approximate length measured from the maps in:[133] 280-300m.
Antioch

Circus of Antioch 		Antakya Turkey 36°13′33″N 36°10′19″E / 36.225754°N 36.171885°E / 36.225754; 36.171885 (Antioch (Antakya) Roman circus) cited in Humphrey;[7] location (from 1930s aerial photograph);[134] map[135] of ancient Antioch[136] showing the circus as a hippodrome; length: c490m;[134][137] width: c90m;[134][137] very little visible today; is more visible in a 1930s aerial photograph;[134] lightly over-built by modern structures and occupations. images (may not be oriented to north)[134]
Aphrodisias Aphrodisias Turkey 37°42′45″N 28°43′19″E / 37.712543°N 28.721985°E / 37.712543; 28.721985 (Aphrodisias Roman stadium or hippodrome) Double-U-shaped; very substantially preserved; significantly smaller than other circuses; may be considered a stadium or hippodrome rather than a circus; visible track length: c220m;[138] visible track width: 35m.[138] images (may not be oriented to north)[139]
Byzantium

Hippodrome of Constantinople 		Istanbul Turkey 41°00′24″N 28°58′33″E / 41.006548°N 28.975961°E / 41.006548; 28.975961 (Byzantium) Built under Septimius Severus; estimated length: c450m;[140] estimated width: c130m;[140] other than some monuments from the spina, virtually none of the structure is visible today; it is believed much of the structure may lie buried some 2m below the current surface.[141]
Hippodrome of Constantinople 1.jpg
images (may not be oriented to north)[142]
Laodicea on the Lycus Denizli (c6km) Turkey 37°49′52″N 29°06′16″E / 37.831074°N 29.104478°E / 37.831074; 29.104478 (Laodicea Roman stadium) referred to as a stadium; double U-shaped and small; visible track length: c250m;[143] visible track width: c40m;[143] form clearly visible; no visible spina; unoccupied by any subsequent construction.
Nicomedia İzmit Turkey 40°46′00″N 29°55′15″E / 40.766754°N 29.920744°E / 40.766754; 29.920744 (Nicomedia (İzmit) Roman town (not the circus; historic nucleus of İzmit)) (not the circus; historic nucleus of İzmit) cited in Humphrey;[7] general information on the archaeological remains of Nicomedia;[144][145] Kocaeli municipal history,[146] including a 19th-century map showing the location of the historic nucleus of the city (through history Kocaeli has been named successively: Olbia, Astakos, Nicomedia, Iznikmid, and Izmid or Izmit); no online circus-specific information found.

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Auzia

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Sour El-Ghozlane is a town and commune in Algeria's central-northern, just-landlocked Bouïra Province.

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Philippopolis (Thrace)

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Source: "Roman circus", Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, (2023, March 1st), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_circus.

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Further Reading

Jerash

Chariot racing

Sultanahmet Square

Treveri

Dougga

Christianity in the Roman Africa province

Maktar

List of Roman amphitheatres

Roman roads in Africa

Roman Theatre (Mérida)

Circus of Carthage

German and Sarmatian campaigns of Constantine
See also
  • Hippodrome – a Greek arena also used for chariot racing
References
  1. ^ Gibbon, Edward (1776). "Chapter 31 - Games and spectacles". The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Christian Classics Ethereal library; Edward Gibbon, English historian of the Roman Empire. Retrieved 2013-11-11. - second sentence of the following paragraph
  2. ^ Gibbon, Edward (1776). "Chapter XXXI: Invasion Of Italy, Occupation Of Territories By Barbarians.—Part III". The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. ( Project Gutenberg; Gibbon, Edward, 1737-1794). Archived from the original on 2008-09-21. Retrieved 2013-11-11. - second sentence of the 4th paragraph
  3. ^ Gibbon, Edward (1776). "Chapter XXXI: Invasion Of Italy, Occupation Of Territories By Barbarians.—Part II". The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. ( Project Gutenberg; Gibbon, Edward, 1737-1794). Archived from the original on 2008-09-04. Retrieved 2013-11-11. - second sentence of the 4th paragraph
  4. ^ Michael Gagarin; Elaine Fantham, eds. (2009). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1. Oxford University Press. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-19-517072-6.
  5. ^ Circus Maximus#History of Construction.
  6. ^ a b [Auzia] Names of cities in Algerie in (A.D. 138) Roman times and names now from E-DZ Community | Education & Learning | Algerian History, Culture, Art, Law, Politics (order by start date; start date: 21 Dec 2008).
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar John H. Humphrey: Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles 1986, ISBN 0-520-04921-7.
  8. ^ a b [Cherchell] The Circus | Cherchel at circusmaximus.us.
  9. ^ a b c d [Setif] The Circus | Circus at Setif at circusmaximus.us.
  10. ^ a b [Trimontium] The ancient stadium of Philippopolis Track.
  11. ^ [Trimontium] The ancient stadium of Philippopolis.
  12. ^ a b [Antinopolis] Wikimapia location: Antinopolis.
  13. ^ [Camulodunum] THE ROMAN CIRCUS VICTRICENSIS IN COLCHESTER Archived 2013-02-07 at the Wayback Machine.
  14. ^ [Camulodunum] Colchester Archaeological Trust.
  15. ^ a b c [Camulodunum] Roman Circus 200 m south of Abbey House, EHER/SMR Number 46327 at Unlocking Essex's Past website from Heritage Conservation at Essex County Council.
  16. ^ [Arelate] Cirque romain Archived 2008-11-26 at the Wayback Machine (in French), at Patrimoine de la Ville d'Arles Archived 2012-02-07 at the Wayback Machine | Ville d'Arles Archived 2012-02-04 at the Wayback Machine | Barriol / Plan-du-Bourg Archived 2012-02-29 at the Wayback Machine.
  17. ^ a b [Arelate] Cirque romain d'Arles Archived 2012-05-02 at the Wayback Machine at Arles Office de Tourisme | Visit | Places to visit Archived 2012-03-12 at the Wayback Machine.
  18. ^ a b [Arelate] Cirque romain | Description Archived 2012-02-29 at the Wayback Machine (in French), at Patrimoine de la Ville d'Arles Archived 2012-02-07 at the Wayback Machine | Ville d'Arles Archived 2012-02-04 at the Wayback Machine | Barriol / Plan-du-Bourg Archived 2012-02-29 at the Wayback Machine.
  19. ^ [Arelate] Wikimapia location: Arelate.
  20. ^ [Arelate] The Circus | Arles at circusmaximus.us.
  21. ^ a b [Lugdunum] Cirque antique de Lyon and Cirque antique de Lyon#Hypothèses de localisation (in French).
  22. ^ a b c d e Raymond G. Chase: Ancient Hellenistic and Roman amphitheatres, stadiums, and theatres: the way they look now. P. E. Randall, Portsmouth 2002, ISBN 1-931807-08-6
  23. ^ [Vienna] The Circus | Vienne at circusmaximus.us.
  24. ^ [Augusta Treverorum] satellite photo from LIVIUS Articles on Ancient History | Germania Inferior | Topography | Augusta Treverorum (Trier) | Trier: Circus.
  25. ^ [Augusta Treverorum] Wikimapia location: Augusta Treverorum Roman circus.
  26. ^ [Augusta Treverorum] Archäologie in Trier (in German) from Universität Trier | Organisation | Fachbereiche und Fächer | Fachbereich III Archived 2012-03-02 at the Wayback Machine | Klassische Archäologie | Was | Archäologie in Trier.
  27. ^ [Augusta Treverorum] Trier: Circus at LIVIUS Articles on Ancient History | Germania Inferior | Topography | Augusta Treverorum (Trier).
  28. ^ [Corinth] A Roman Circus in Corinth at HighBeam Research – Publications – Academic journals – History journals – Hesperia, paper reference: David Gilman Romano, "A Roman Circus in Corinth," in Hesperia 74, 2005, pp. 585–611.
  29. ^ [Corinth] Figure 11. Roman Corinth, ca. A.D. 50, and a portion of the land divided between the long walls illustrating the north–south roadways. from Corinth Computer Project | Greek and Roman Corinth | 44 BC – Colonia Laus Iulia Corinthiensis (Figure 11).
  30. ^ [Corinth] Figure 11. Roman Corinth, ca. A.D. 50, and a portion of the land divided between the long walls illustrating the north–south roadways from Corinth Computer Project | Greek and Roman Corinth | Colonia Laus Iulia Corinthiensis, 44 BC (Figure 11).
  31. ^ [Corinth] Wikimapia location: Corinth Roman circus (hypothesised and partially excavated location).
  32. ^ [Gortyn] Map of Gortyn (Gortina – Planta Archaeologica Dela Citta) at romanaqueducts.info | Roman Aqueducts Archived 2012-06-16 at the Wayback Machine | AQUASITE: Information on 50 selected Roman aqueducts | Gortyn(a) (Greece / Crete).
  33. ^ a b [Gortyn] Wikimapia location: Gortyn Roman circus.
  34. ^ [Gortyn] The Circus | Circus of Gortyn at circusmaximus.us.
  35. ^ a b c [Nicopolis] Wikimapia location: Nicopolis Roman circus.
  36. ^ a b [Thessalonica] Wikimapia location: Thessalonica Roman circus.
  37. ^ a b [Thessalonica] archaeological map of walled historical centre of Thessalonica.
  38. ^ a b c [Caesarea Maritima] The Circus | Caesarea at circusmaximus.us.
  39. ^ a b [Caesarea Maritima (coastal)] Wikimapia location: Caesarea Maritima Roman circus (coastal).
  40. ^ a b [Caesarea Maritima (inland)] Wikimapia location: Caesarea Maritima Roman circus (inland).
  41. ^ a b c d [Aquileia] The Circus | Aquileia at circusmaximus.us.
  42. ^ a b [Aquileia] Wikimapia location: Aquileia Roman circus.
  43. ^ a b c [Bovillae] L'antica Bovillae | Il Circo di Bovillae (in Italian) at parcodibovillae.org | PROTEZIONE DELL'AREA DELL'ANTICA BOVILLAE (in Italian).
  44. ^ [Bovillae] English page | The Roman stadium of Boville at parcodibovillae.org | PROTEZIONE DELL'AREA DELL'ANTICA BOVILLAE (in Italian).
  45. ^ [Bovillae] Wikimapia location: Bovillae Roman circus.
  46. ^ a b [Mediolanum] The Circus | Milan at circusmaximus.us.
  47. ^ [Mediolanum] Wikimapia location: Mediolanum Roman circus.
  48. ^ a b [Mediolanum] J.H.Humphrey, Roman Circuses, Londra 1986, p.614.
  49. ^ [Mediolanum] Wikimapia location: Milan Roman circus (tower at the north western corner).
  50. ^ [Circus Flaminius] Wikimapia location: Circus Flaminius, Rome.
  51. ^ [Circus Flaminius] Circus Flaminius.
  52. ^ a b [Circus Flaminius] Circus Flaminius – Samuel Ball Platner, 1929, via http://penelope.uchicago.edu/ at the University of Chicago.
  53. ^ a b [Circus of Maxentius] Wikimapia location: Circus of Maxentius, Rome.
  54. ^ [Circus of Maxentius] The Circus | Maxentius at circusmaximus.us.
  55. ^ a b [Circus Maximus] Circus Maximus#Republican era.
  56. ^ [Circus of Nero] Wikimapia location: Circus of Nero (location of the spina obelisk until 1586).
  57. ^ [Circus of Nero] Wikimapia location: Circus of Nero (location of the obelisk since 1586).
  58. ^ [Circus of Nero] The Circus | Vatican Circus at circusmaximus.us.
  59. ^ [Circus Varianus] Wikimapia location: Circus Varianus, Rome.
  60. ^ a b [Circus Varianus] Circo Variano at Italian Wikipedia.
  61. ^ [Circus Varianus] The Circus | Varianus at circusmaximus.us.
  62. ^ [Gadara] Gadara (Umm Quais) Topographische Bestandkarte 2007 (archaeological site map) Archived 2013-05-22 at the Wayback Machine from Research projects | geographical order | Gadara/Umm Qais (Jordanien) Archived 2012-04-12 at the Wayback Machine at Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI) Archived 2012-02-10 at the Wayback Machine.
  63. ^ [Gadara] Wikimapia location: Gadara hippodrome.
  64. ^ a b [Gerasa] Wikimapia location: Gerasa Roman circus.
  65. ^ [Gerasa] The Circus | Gerasa at circusmaximus.us.
  66. ^ [Berytus] Wikimapia location: Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus Roman hippodrome.
  67. ^ a b [Tyrus] Wikimapia location: Tyrus Roman circus.
  68. ^ [Tyrus] The Circus | Tyre at circusmaximus.us.
  69. ^ a b [Cyrene] Wikimapia location: Cyrene Roman circus.
  70. ^ a b c [Cyrene] The Circus | Circus at Cyrene at circusmaximus.us.
  71. ^ a b [Leptis Magna] Wikimapia location: Leptis Magna Roman circus.
  72. ^ [Leptis Magna] The Circus | Leptis Magna at circusmaximus.us.
  73. ^ [Aeminium] Aeminium at Museu Nacional de Machado de Castro Archived 2011-09-03 at the Wayback Machine | English Version.
  74. ^ [Aeminium] Aeminium Archived January 21, 2012, at the Wayback Machine (in Portuguese), at Museu Nacional de Machado de Castro | Mini-Sítios.
  75. ^ [Aeminium] Wikimapia location: suggested location for Aeminium Roman circus.
  76. ^ a b c [Balsa] O Urbanismo de Balsa Romana (from 8:50; dimensions given at 9:11) at Campo Arqueológico de Tavira.
  77. ^ a b [Miróbriga] Wikimapia location: Miróbriga Roman circus.
  78. ^ [Miróbriga] The Circus | Circus of Mirobriga at circusmaximus.us.
  79. ^ [Olissipona] A Cronologia do Circo de Olisipo by IPPAR (now IGESPAR); published as: Revista Portuguesa de Arqueologia. volume 5. número 2. 2002, pp 245–275, "A Cronologia do Circo de Olisipo: a Terra Sigillata", Eurico Sepúlveda and others.
  80. ^ a b [Sirmium] archaeological plan of Roman Sirmium from Sirmium Palatium Imperiale at Carska Palata Sirmium.
  81. ^ a b [Sirmium] Sirmium#Archeological findings.
  82. ^ [Calagurris] Cidade | Turismo | Monumentos | Arqueología Romana at Ayuntamiento de Calahorra Archived 2003-05-31 at the Wayback Machine.
  83. ^ [Calagurris] Wikimapia location: Calagurris Roman circus.
  84. ^ [Cáparra] Wikimapia location: Cáparra Roman circus.
  85. ^ [Cáparra] Cáparra at Spanish Wikipedia.
  86. ^ a b [Corduba] Wikimapia location: Corduba Roman circus.
  87. ^ a b [Corduba] Cordoba Roman circus Archived 2012-08-30 at the Wayback Machine at Artencordoba.com | Roman Córdoba Archived 2012-01-28 at the Wayback Machine (see also: plan of Roman Cordoba Archived 2012-08-26 at the Wayback Machine; and: detailed location map of the circus).
  88. ^ a b [Emerita Augusta] Wikimapia location: Emerita Augusta Roman circus.
  89. ^ [Emerita Augusta] The Circus | Emerita Augusta at circusmaximus.us.
  90. ^ [Italica] Roman sites by list | Spain | Italica at Imperium Roman sites.
  91. ^ [Saguntum] Wikimapia location: Saguntum Roman circus.
  92. ^ [Saguntum] Roman sites by list | Spain | Sagunto at Imperium Roman sites.
  93. ^ [Saguntum] Wikimapia location: Saguntum Roman circus (excavated gate).
  94. ^ a b [Saguntum] Wikimapia location: Saguntum Roman circus (information, including dimensions, in Spanish).
  95. ^ [Saguntum] The Circus | Segunto at circusmaximus.us.
  96. ^ a b [Tarraco] Roman Art | Public Spectacles architecture | Circus of Tarraco in Tarragona | Roman Circus of Tarraco, at Tarragona at SpanishArts.com.
  97. ^ [Tarraco] The Circus | Tarragona at circusmaximus.us.
  98. ^ a b [Toletum] The Circus | Toledo at circusmaximus.us.
  99. ^ [Toletum] Wikimapia location: Toletum Roman circus.
  100. ^ [Toletum] Wikimapia location: Toletum Roman circus (curved end).
  101. ^ a b [Zafra] Zafra#Roman era (article accessed: 2012-03-01).
  102. ^ [Bostra] Plan de l'Ancienne Ville de Bosra montrant l'emplacement de tous les monuments connus. B&W, 37 x 25 cm, scale by approximation ~ 1:6,100. Shows in red the boundaries of the site at UNESCO | Ancient City of Bosra.
  103. ^ [Bostra] Plan de Bosra (circus identified as a hippodrome) from In-Depth History | Plan of the City | Plan of the City at Bosracity.com | English.
  104. ^ a b [Bostra] Wikimapia location: Nova Trajana Bostra Roman circus.
  105. ^ [Bostra] The Circus | Bostra at circusmaximus.us.
  106. ^ a b [Abthugni]+[Commodum (as: Mun. Aur. Comm.)] map from DocArtis | Progetti | TUNISIA: Projet de gestion du patrimoine culturel | Bibliografie | B0000018 | Pflaum H. G., Romanisation de l'ancien territoire de la Carthage punique; The full article and map can be found from: Pflaum H. G., "Romanisation de l'ancien territoire de la Carthage punique" - in Antiquités africaines, 4, 1970. pp. 75-118. (the full map is on the last page; a high resolution version of the complete map may be obtained by using the scaling facilities of the site to enlarge the map, and then saving the resulting image).
  107. ^ [Abthugni] Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, Edited by Richard J. A. Talbert, Map 32 Carthago; textual directory to map available from: http://press.princeton.edu/B_ATLAS.ZIP | BATL032_.PDF Archived 2013-05-07 at the Wayback Machine (reference to Abthugni and Henchir-es-Souar on directory page 494 (PDF page 2)).
  108. ^ a b [Abthugni] Hennchir Kasbat es Souar: Tunisia, SOURCE: National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, Bethesda, MD, USA.
  109. ^ a b [Abthugni (as: 'Ruins' at ref: NJ 32-15/510322)]+[Commodum (as: 'Henchir Boucha (ruins)' at ref: NJ 32-15/498358)] on map: NJ 32-15 Tunis, Tunisia from Perry–Castañeda Library Map Collection | Tunisia Maps | Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia, Joint Operations Graphic 1:250,000.
  110. ^ [Abthugni] ZAGHOUAN (search for 'A00030'), from Docartis | Tunisia | Patrimonio archeologico e storico | Siti complessi e monumenti | Gestion du patrimoine culturel de la Tunisie - Liste des monuments et décrets par gouvernorat (search for 'Zaghouan').
  111. ^ [Abthugni] Décret du 13 mars 1912 (24 rabia-el-aoual 1330), page 2 (search for 'Henchir Souar'), from Docartis | Tunisia | Patrimonio archeologico e storico | Decreti di protezione | Liste Decrets (search for '14, Décret du 13 mars 1912 (24 rabia-el-aoual 1330)') | Décret du 13 mars 1912 (24 rabia-el-aoual 1330).
  112. ^ [Abthugni] aerial photograph from Docartis | Tunisia | Fonti documentarie | Foto aeree | PHOTOS AERIENNES (search for 'Henchir Souar, A00030').
  113. ^ [Abthugni] Wikimapia location: Henchir Souar.
  114. ^ a b c d [Carthago] The Circus | Carthage Circus at circusmaximus.us.
  115. ^ a b [Carthago] Wikimapia location: Carthago Roman circus.
  116. ^ a b [Commodum] site no. 028.113, Henchir Fraxine/Henchir Bou Cha (anc. Municipium Aurelium Commodum) (doc page: 98; PDF page: 99)(gives UTM coordinates: 358,900N; 498,350E = approx: 36 deg 32' N, 9 deg 53' E) from Institut National du Patrimoine Tunisie | Archaeological Map | Carte National des Sites Arqueologiques e des Monuments Historiques | Bir Mcherga 028 | Cahier BIR MCHERGA 028. (in French)
  117. ^ [Hadrumetum] Wikimapia location: Sousse Roman circus (probable location).
  118. ^ [Hadrumetum] Sousse Archaeological Bulletin (especially PDF pages: 16, 17, 19, 204, 239, 410) "SOCIÉTÉ ARCHÉOLOGIQUE DE SOUSSE, Assemblée générale du 29 Février 1903, Extraits des procès-verbaux des réunions." etc., from Institut National du Patrimoine Tunisie / National Heritage Institute (INP) | Digital Library | Sousse Archaeological Bulletin (near bottom of page). (in French)
  119. ^ [Hadrumetum] aerial photograph of Sousse from DocArtis | Progetti | TUNISIA: Projet de gestion du patrimoine culturel | Fonti documentarie | Foto aeree | PHOTOS AERIENNES | Sousse ville. | A00219.
  120. ^ [Thugga] Dougga#Dougga's "liberty".
  121. ^ [Thugga] Wikimapia location: Thugga Roman circus (approximate location).
  122. ^ [Thugga] Délimitation du site culturel de Dougga. A3. Scale by calculation ~ 1: 6,250. Shows boundaries and buffer zone of the World Heritage property from UNESCO – Culture – World Heritage Centre – The List – World Heritage List – Dougga / Thugga – Maps.
  123. ^ [Thugga] THE GERMAN-TUNISIAN PROJECT AT DOUGGA FIRST RESULTS OF THE EXCAVATIONS SOUTH OF THE MAISON DU TRIFOLIUM (page 47).
  124. ^ [Thugga] PlanetWare.com > Africa and the Middle East > Tunisia > Tunisia Tourist Attractions > Dougga Tourist Attractions | Circus.
  125. ^ [Thugga] Dougga#Circus.
  126. ^ [Thugga] The Circus | Dougga at circusmaximus.us.
  127. ^ a b [Thysdrus] Wikimapia location: Thysdrus Roman circus.
  128. ^ [Thysdrus] The Circus | El Djem at circusmaximus.us.
  129. ^ [Utica] Cahier Ghar el Melh (NO-SO) from Institut National du Patrimoine Tunisie | Archaeological Map | Carte National des Sites Arqueologiques e des Monuments Historiques | 007 Ghar el Melh.
  130. ^ [Utica] Utica, Tunisia at British School at Rome – Accademia Britannica di Archeologia, Storia e Belle Arti – Research – Archaeology – Geophysics – Geophysics Projects (search for 'Utica, Tunisia').
  131. ^ [Utica] Wikimapia location: Utica Roman circus (uncorroborated).
  132. ^ [Utica] Wikimapia location: Utica Roman circus (probable).
  133. ^ a b [Utica] 'Survey and Excavation at Utica 2010' by Nabil Kallala, Elizabeth Fentress, Josephine Quinn, Andrew Wilson (maps on pages 11 and 12).
  134. ^ a b c d e [Antioch] The Circus | Antioch at circusmaximus.us.
  135. ^ [Antioch] map Ancient City of Antioch Archived December 30, 2005, at the Wayback Machine from a past exhibition at the Cleveland Museum of Art.
  136. ^ [Antioch] Wikimapia location: ancient city of Antioch.
  137. ^ a b [Antioch] Wikimapia location: Antioch Roman hippodrome.
  138. ^ a b [Aphrodisias] Wikimapia location: Aphrodisias Roman circus/hippodrome/stadium.
  139. ^ [Aphrodisias] The Circus | Aphrodisia at circusmaximus.us.
  140. ^ a b [Byzantium] Hippodrome of Constantinople#History and use.
  141. ^ [Byzantium] Hippodrome of Constantinople#The Hippodrome today.
  142. ^ [Byzantium] The Circus | Constantinople at circusmaximus.us.
  143. ^ a b [Laodicea on the Lycus] Wikimapia location: Laodicea on the Lycus Roman stadium or circus.
  144. ^ [Nicomedia] The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites | NICOMEDIA NW Turkey at Perseus Digital Library | Collections/Texts | Perseus Collection | Greek and Roman Materials (search for 'The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites').
  145. ^ [Nicomedia] KocaeLi - information on historical remains at Izmit (ancient Nicomedia).
  146. ^ [Nicomedia] Kocaeli Metropolitan Municipality | History of Kocaeli.
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