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Politics of Barbados

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Politics of Barbados
Coat of arms of Barbados (3).svg
Constitution
Executive
Legislature
Judiciary
Elections
Administrative divisions
Foreign relations
Historical

The politics of Barbados function within a framework of a parliamentary republic with strong democratic traditions; constitutional safeguards for nationals of Barbados include: freedom of speech, press, worship, movement, and association.

Executive power is vested in the President of Barbados, and is exercised by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, who together, form the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the Parliament. The political system is dominated by two main parties, the Barbados Labour Party and the Democratic Labour Party. The judiciary of Barbados is independent of the executive and the legislature. Jurisprudence is based on English common law.

Many of the country's legislative practices derive from the unwritten conventions of, and precedents set by, the United Kingdom's Westminster Parliament; however, Barbados has evolved variations.

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Barbados

Barbados

Barbados is an island country in the Lesser Antilles of the West Indies, in the Caribbean region of the Americas, and the most easterly of the Caribbean Islands. It occupies an area of 432 km2 (167 sq mi) and has a population of about 287,000. Its capital and largest city is Bridgetown.

Parliamentary republic

Parliamentary republic

A parliamentary republic is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature. There are a number of variations of parliamentary republics. Most have a clear differentiation between the head of government and the head of state, with the head of government holding real power and the head of state being a ceremonial position, similar to constitutional monarchies. However, in some countries the head of state has 'reserve powers' to use at their discretion as a non-partisan 'referee' of the political process. Some have combined the roles of head of state and head of government, much like presidential systems, but with a dependency upon parliamentary power.

Democracy

Democracy

Democracy is a form of government in which the people have the authority to deliberate and decide legislation, or to choose governing officials to do so. Who is considered part of "the people" and how authority is shared among or delegated by the people has changed over time and at different rates in different countries. Features of democracy often include freedom of assembly, association, property rights, freedom of religion and speech, inclusiveness and equality, citizenship, consent of the governed, voting rights, freedom from unwarranted governmental deprivation of the right to life and liberty, and minority rights.

Executive (government)

Executive (government)

The executive, also referred as the executive branch or executive power, is the term commonly used to describe that part of government which enforces the law, and has overall responsibility for the governance of a state.

Government

Government

A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a state.

Legislature

Legislature

A legislature is an assembly with the authority to make laws for a political entity such as a country or city. They are often contrasted with the executive and judicial powers of government.

Parliament of Barbados

Parliament of Barbados

The Parliament of Barbados is the national legislature of Barbados. It is accorded legislative supremacy by Chapter V of the Constitution of Barbados. The Parliament is bicameral in composition and is formally made up of two houses, an appointed Senate and an elected House of Assembly, as well as the President of Barbados who is indirectly elected by both. Both houses sit in separate chambers in the Parliament Buildings, in the national capital Bridgetown in Saint Michael.

Barbados Labour Party

Barbados Labour Party

The Barbados Labour Party (BLP), colloquially known as the "Bees", is a social democratic political party in Barbados established in 1938. Led by Prime Minister Mia Amor Mottley, it is the governing party of Barbados and the sole ruling party in the House of Assembly of Barbados, holding 30 out of 30 seats. The BLP was elected to government on 25 May 2018 after a decade in opposition, with Mottley becoming the country's first female prime minister. The party originally won all of the seats in the House of Assembly, but Bishop Joseph Atherley, the MP for St. Michael West, became an independent MP and the leader of the opposition on 2 June 2018. The party won all 30 seats in the 2022 general election.

Democratic Labour Party (Barbados)

Democratic Labour Party (Barbados)

The Democratic Labour Party (DLP), colloquially known as the "Dems", is a political party in Barbados, established in 1955. It was the ruling party from 15 January 2008 to 24 May 2018 but faced an electoral wipeout in the 2018 general election which left it with no MPs.

Judiciary

Judiciary

The judiciary is the system of courts that adjudicates legal disputes/disagreements and interprets, defends, and applies the law in legal cases.

Constitutional convention (political custom)

Constitutional convention (political custom)

A constitutional convention is an informal and uncodified tradition that is followed by the institutions of a state. In some states, notably those Commonwealth of Nations states that follow the Westminster system and whose political systems derive from British constitutional law, most government functions are guided by constitutional convention rather than by a formal written constitution. In these states, actual distribution of power may be markedly different from those the formal constitutional documents describe. In particular, the formal constitution often confers wide discretionary powers on the head of state that, in practice, are used only on the advice of the head of government, and in some cases not at all.

Parliament of the United Kingdom

Parliament of the United Kingdom

The Parliament of the United Kingdom is the supreme legislative body of the United Kingdom, the Crown Dependencies and the British Overseas Territories. It meets at the Palace of Westminster, London. It alone possesses legislative supremacy and thereby ultimate power over all other political bodies in the UK and the overseas territories. Parliament is bicameral but has three parts, consisting of the sovereign (King-in-Parliament), the House of Lords, and the House of Commons. In theory, power is officially vested in the King-in-Parliament. However, the Crown normally acts on the advice of the prime minister, and the powers of the House of Lords are limited to only delaying legislation; thus power is de facto vested in the House of Commons.

Summary of governmental organization

Name
Barbados
Type of government
Parliamentary democracy with a constitutional republic.
Capital
Bridgetown.
Administrative divisions
11 parishes: Christ Church, Saint Andrew, Saint George, Saint James, Saint John, Saint Joseph, Saint Lucy, Saint Michael, Saint Peter, Saint Philip, Saint Thomas; and the city of Bridgetown
Constitution
Westminster system, based on unwritten conventions and written legislation.
Legal system
English common law; accepts compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction, with reservations.
Suffrage
Citizens aged 18 years or older.
Participation in international organizations
CARICOM, CSME, CCJ, ACS, ICCt, ACP, Commonwealth of Nations, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, International Maritime Organization, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, LAES, MIGA, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO.
Description of national flag
Three vertical panels – the outer panels of ultramarine and the centre panel of gold. A broken trident in black is the centre of the flag.
Further information: Flag of Barbados

Executive power

Head of State
Sandra Mason, President of Barbados (since 30 November 2021).
Head of Government
Prime Minister Mia Mottley (since 25 May 2018).
Cabinet
Ministers chosen by the Prime Minister and appointed by the President's assent. Cabinet leads various ministries and agencies. Constitutionally, there must be at least five ministers, who may be appointed exclusively from within Parliament.
Elections
The President is indirectly elected by Parliament, by a two-thirds supermajority in each House, for a four-year term. In following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party in the House of Assembly is usually designated by the President to become Prime Minister.

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Barbados

Barbados

Barbados is an island country in the Lesser Antilles of the West Indies, in the Caribbean region of the Americas, and the most easterly of the Caribbean Islands. It occupies an area of 432 km2 (167 sq mi) and has a population of about 287,000. Its capital and largest city is Bridgetown.

Republic

Republic

A republic is a system of government where people choose representatives through elections to make decisions in the public's interest. In contrast, a democracy might rely primarily on sortition to make decisions by a representative sample of the public while an autocracy concentrates power in very few hands.

Bridgetown

Bridgetown

Bridgetown is the capital and largest city of Barbados. Formerly The Town of Saint Michael, the Greater Bridgetown area is located within the parish of Saint Michael. Bridgetown is sometimes locally referred to as "The City", but the most common reference is simply "Town". As of 2014, its metropolitan population stands at roughly 110,000.

Christ Church, Barbados

Christ Church, Barbados

The parish of Christ Church is one of eleven historic political divisions of Barbados. It has a land area of 57 km2 (22 sq mi) and is found at the southern end of the island. Christ Church has survived by name as one of the original six parishes created in 1629 by Governor Sir William Tufton.

Saint Andrew, Barbados

Saint Andrew, Barbados

Saint Andrew is one of eleven parishes of Barbados. It is situated in the northeastern area in the country.

Saint George, Barbados

Saint George, Barbados

The landlocked parish of Saint George is located in the interior of Barbados. It is one of two land-locked parishes, the other being Saint Thomas to the north. A prominent landmark in the parish is Gun Hill Signal Station – one of the few remaining signal stations, dating back to 1818.

Saint James, Barbados

Saint James, Barbados

The parish of Saint James is an area located in the western central part of the country of Barbados. Increasingly St. James is becoming known as the playground of the rich and famous, and as a haven for sun-starved tourists with its up-market hotel resorts.

Saint John, Barbados

Saint John, Barbados

The parish of Saint John is a parish of Barbados on the eastern side of the island. It is home to one of its secondary schools, The Lodge School. It is home to the St. John's Parish Church, which has a scenic view of the Atlantic Ocean from its perch near Hackleton's Cliff, which overlooks the East Coast of the island. In its southeastern corner, the shoreline turns northward, forming the small Conset Bay.

Saint Joseph, Barbados

Saint Joseph, Barbados

The parish of Saint Joseph is a parish of Barbados on the eastern side of the island. The parish is home to two of the more notable botanic gardens in the country - Flower Forest and Andromeda Gardens. Parts of St. Joseph are also referred to as the Scotland District, a reference to the appearance of the landscape.

Constitutional convention (political custom)

Constitutional convention (political custom)

A constitutional convention is an informal and uncodified tradition that is followed by the institutions of a state. In some states, notably those Commonwealth of Nations states that follow the Westminster system and whose political systems derive from British constitutional law, most government functions are guided by constitutional convention rather than by a formal written constitution. In these states, actual distribution of power may be markedly different from those the formal constitutional documents describe. In particular, the formal constitution often confers wide discretionary powers on the head of state that, in practice, are used only on the advice of the head of government, and in some cases not at all.

Constitution of Barbados

Constitution of Barbados

The Constitution of Barbados is the supreme law under which Barbados is governed. The Constitution provides a legal establishment of the Government of Barbados, as well as legal rights and responsibilities of the public and various other government officers. The Constitution which came into force in 1966 was amended in 1974, 1978, 1990, 1992, 1995, 2002, 2003, and 2021. The 1966 document succeeds several other documents concerning administration of Barbados. One of them, the Barbados Charter, is discussed in the present Constitution's Preamble. Prior statutes were created for the administration of Barbados as a colony. As a former English and later British colony, the Constitution is similar to those of other former Commonwealth realms, yet distinctly different in the spirit of the Statute of Westminster.

English law

English law

English law is the common law legal system of England and Wales, comprising mainly criminal law and civil law, each branch having its own courts and procedures.

Government of Barbados

Main article: Government of Barbados

Head of state

Main article: President of Barbados

The President of Barbados is the head of state and serves as the repository of executive power, as expressed in the Constitution: "The executive authority of Barbados is vested in the President." In practice, the president rarely exercises this power on her own volition due to the fact that the Constitution obliges the President to follow the advice of her ministers. As a consequence, the president is not held personally responsible for the decisions of the government.

Head of government

The Prime Minister is the head of government. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of Barbados, but to ensure the continuity of a stable government this person will always be the one who has the confidence of the House of Assembly to lead the government. In practice, the position usually goes to the leader of the political party that has the most seats in the lower house. In no Barbadian election has a single party obtained less than an absolute majority in the House of Assembly (a situation which would have entailed the formation of a minority or coalition government).

The Prime Minister holds office until he resigns is effectively subject to a winning vote of no confidence[1] or is removed by the President; therefore, the party that was in government before the election may attempt to continue to govern if they so desire, even if they hold fewer seats than another party. Coalition governments have never occurred.

Political parties are private organisations that are not mentioned in the constitution. The Prime Minister and the Cabinet are constitutionally required to be Members of Parliament so they can answer to Parliament for their actions. The Prime Minister selects ministers to head the various government departments and form a cabinet. The members of the Cabinet remain in office at the pleasure of the President.

If the Assembly passes a motion of no confidence in the government, the Prime Minister and the rest of Cabinet are expected either to resign their offices or to ask for Parliament to be dissolved so that a general election can be held. To avoid a non-confidence motion from passing, parties enforce strong party discipline, in which members of a party – especially from the ruling party – are strongly urged to vote the "party line" or face consequences. While a member of a governing party is free to vote their conscience, they are constrained by the fact that voting against the party line (especially in confidence votes) might lead to expulsion from their party. Such an expulsion would lead to loss of election funding and the former party backing an alternate candidate. While the government likes to keep control in these circumstances, in unwritten practice, the only time the government can fall is if a money bill (financial or budget) is defeated. However, if a government finds that it can not pass any legislation it is common (but not required) that a vote of confidence should be held. The exception is if the prime minister or the government declared that they consider a given bill to be a matter of confidence (hence how backbenchers are often held to strict party voting). Members can be elected as independents. Most independent members are elected under a party, but either chose to leave the party or are expelled from it.

When there are enough seats for another party to form a government after the resignation of a government, the President may ask the other party to try to form the government.

Legislative power

Barbados' Parliament consists of the President and a bicameral legislature: an elected House of Assembly and an appointed Senate. In practice, legislative power rests with the party that has the majority of seats in the House of Assembly, which is elected for a period not to exceed five years.

Political parties and elections

For other political parties, see List of political parties in Barbados. An overview on elections and election results is included in Elections in Barbados.

Summary of the 2022 Barbadian General Election

Asemblee barbade 2018.svg
PartyVotes%Seats+/–
Barbados Labour Party78,72069.03300
Democratic Labour Party30,27326.5500
Alliance Party for Progress3,2052.8100
Solutions Barbados6990.6100
Bajan Free Party1910.1700
New Barbados Kingdom Alliance1220.110New
Barbados Sovereignty Party1200.110New
Independents7050.6200
Total114,035100.00300
Registered voters/turnout266,330–
Source: Nation News (seats); calculation based on Nation News (votes); (turnout)

The parishes of Barbados are usually further divided into one or more constituencies for candidates seeking election to the House of Assembly. As of 1967, there are no longer any Local Government Councils at the parish level, as issues such as schools, public works, government health facilities and other institutions are administered at the national level. However, local representatives to the House of Assembly will usually be responsible for local causes and may take up issues with the respective Ministers of the Crown.

There are two major and long-standing parties in Barbados: the Barbados Labour Party (BLP) and the Democratic Labour Party (DLP). The 1990s have seen the dissolution of a third party: the National Democratic Party (NDP), and in recent times the creation of other parties such as the People's Empowerment Party (PEP), United Progressive Party and the People's Party for Democracy and Development.

Despite initial historical disparity (the BLP was once conservative and the DLP liberal), their modern incarnations are all moderate and largely have no major ideological differences. Electoral contests and political disputes often have personal overtones and voter sway tends to be based on tradition. The major political problems facing Barbados today are in promoting economic growth: creating jobs, encouraging agricultural diversification, attracting small industry, and promoting tourism.

The BLP decisively returned to power, after the DLP ruled from 2008 to 2018, after winning 2018 Barbadian general election in May, 2018. The BLP won all 30 seats in the Parliament, leaving the DLP for the first time since its creation as an Extra-Parliamentary party, and Mia Mottley becoming the first female Prime Minister of Barbados. This historic landslide victory occurred again for the 2022 Barbadian general election with the BLP retaining power under the Mottley Administration, which was the first election following Barbados' transition to a republic.[2]

Party eras

  • Democratic Labour Party (1966–1976)
  • Barbados Labour Party (1976–1986)
  • Democratic Labour Party (1986–1994)
  • Barbados Labour Party (1994–2008)
  • Democratic Labour Party (2008–2018)
  • Barbados Labour Party (2018–present)

Political pressure groups

The main political pressure groups are:

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Government of Barbados

Government of Barbados

The Government of Barbados (GoB), is a unitary parliamentary republic, where the President of Barbados represents as the head of state and the Prime Minister of Barbados represents as the head of government.

President of Barbados

President of Barbados

The president of Barbados is the head of state of Barbados and the commander-in-chief of the Barbados Defence Force. The office was established when the country became a parliamentary republic on 30 November 2021. Before, the head of state was Elizabeth II, Queen of Barbados, who was represented on the island by a governor-general. The first and current president is Sandra Mason, who previously served as the last governor-general.

Head of state

Head of state

A head of state is the public persona who officially embodies a state in its unity and legitimacy. Depending on the country's form of government and separation of powers, the head of state may be a ceremonial figurehead or concurrently the head of government and more.

Head of government

Head of government

The head of government is the highest or the second-highest official in the executive branch of a sovereign state, a federated state, or a self-governing colony, autonomous region, or other government who often presides over a cabinet, a group of ministers or secretaries who lead executive departments. In diplomacy, "head of government" is differentiated from "head of state" although in some countries, for example the United States, they are the same person.

Lower house

Lower house

A lower house is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature, the other chamber being the upper house. Despite its official position "below" the upper house, in many legislatures worldwide, the lower house has come to wield more power or otherwise exert significant political influence. The lower house, typically, is the larger of the two chambers, meaning its members are more numerous.

Minority government

Minority government

A minority government, minority cabinet, minority administration, or a minority parliament is a government and cabinet formed in a parliamentary system when a political party or coalition of parties does not have a majority of overall seats in the legislature. It is sworn into office, with or without the formal support of other parties, enabling a government to be formed. Under such a government, legislation can only be passed with the support or consent of enough other members of the legislature to provide a majority, encouraging multi-partisanship. In bicameral legislatures, the term relates to the situation in the chamber whose confidence is considered most crucial to the continuance in office of the government.

Coalition government

Coalition government

A coalition government is a form of government in which political parties cooperate to form a government. The usual reason for such an arrangement is that no single party has achieved an absolute majority after an election, an atypical outcome in nations with majoritarian electoral systems, but common under proportional representation. A coalition government might also be created in a time of national difficulty or crisis to give a government the high degree of perceived political legitimacy or collective identity, it can also play a role in diminishing internal political strife. In such times, parties have formed all-party coalitions. If a coalition collapses, the Prime Minister and cabinet may be ousted by a vote of no confidence, call snap elections, form a new majority coalition, or continue as a minority government.

Motion of no confidence

Motion of no confidence

A vote of no confidence, also variously called a motion of no confidence, no-confidence motion, motion of confidence, or vote of confidence, is a statement or vote about whether a person in a position of responsibility like in government or management is still deemed fit to hold that position, such as because they are inadequate in some aspect, fail to carry out their obligations, or make decisions that other members feel to be detrimental. The parliamentary motion demonstrates to the head of government that the elected parliament either has or no longer has confidence in one or more members of the appointed government. In some countries, a no-confidence motion being passed against an individual minister requires the minister to resign. In most cases, if the minister in question is the premier, all other ministers must also resign.

Political party

Political party

A political party is an organization that coordinates candidates to compete in a particular country's elections. It is common for the members of a party to hold similar ideas about politics, and parties may promote specific ideological or policy goals.

Cabinet of Barbados

Cabinet of Barbados

The Cabinet are individuals of Barbados which execute the duties of the Government of Barbados. Under a Parliamentary republic, these powers are vested nominally by the President of Barbados, but are exercised in practice by a Cabinet of Ministers, presided over by the Prime Minister of Barbados. The Prime Minister is formally appointed by the President: the President must appoint, as Prime Minister, someone who can control a majority of votes in the House of Assembly. In practice, this is normally the leader of the largest political party or coalition in the house. When there is no clear majority, the president assumers the role of arbitrator and opens negotiations with the leaders of the various political parties, in the hope of finding someone whom a majority will accept as Prime Minister. In the event of that failing to take place, the President must dissolve the House of Assembly and call an early election.

Dissolution of parliament

Dissolution of parliament

Dissolution of a legislative assembly is the mandatory simultaneous resignation of all of its members, in anticipation that a successive legislative assembly will reconvene later with possibly different members. In a democracy, the new assembly is chosen by a general election. Dissolution is distinct on the one hand from abolition of the assembly, and on the other hand from its adjournment or prorogation, or the ending of a legislative session, any of which begins a period of inactivity after which it is anticipated that the same members will reassemble. For example, the "second session of the fifth parliament" could be followed by the "third session of the fifth parliament" after a prorogation, but the "first session of the sixth parliament" after a dissolution.

General election

General election

A general election is a political voting election where generally all or most members of a given political body are chosen. These are usually held for a nation, state, or territory's primary legislative body, and are different from by-elections . In most systems, a general election is a regularly scheduled election where both a head of government, and either "a class" or all members of a legislature are elected at the same time. Occasionally, dates for general elections may align with dates of elections within different administrative divisions, such as a local election.

Judiciary

Main article: Judiciary of Barbados

Barbados has an independent judiciary composed of Magistrates' Courts, which are statutorily authorized, and a Supreme Court, which is constitutionally mandated. The Supreme Court consists of the High Court and the Court of Appeal,[3] each having four judges. The Chief Justice serves on both the high court and the court of appeal. The court of last resort is the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ) in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago (which replaced the British-based Judicial Committee of the Privy Council). The CCJ's decisions are binding on all parties. Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister after consultation with the leader of the opposition. Supreme Court of Judicature judges are appointed by the Service Commissions for the Judicial and Legal Service.

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Judiciary of Barbados

Judiciary of Barbados

The Judiciary of Barbados is an independent branch of the Barbadian government, subject only to the Barbadian Constitution. It is headed by the Chief Justice of Barbados. Barbados is a common law jurisdiction, in which precedents from English law and British Commonwealth tradition may be taken into account.

Caribbean Court of Justice

Caribbean Court of Justice

The Caribbean Court of Justice is the judicial institution of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM). Established in 2005, it is based in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.

Port of Spain

Port of Spain

Port of Spain, officially the City of Port of Spain, is the capital of Trinidad and Tobago and the third largest municipality, after Chaguanas and San Fernando. The city has a municipal population of 37,074, an urban population of 81,142 and a transient daily population of 250,000. It is located on the Gulf of Paria, on the northwest coast of the island of Trinidad and is part of a larger conurbation stretching from Chaguaramas in the west to Arima in the east with an estimated population of 600,000.

Trinidad and Tobago

Trinidad and Tobago

Trinidad and Tobago, officially the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, is the southernmost island country in the Caribbean. Consisting of the main islands Trinidad and Tobago, and numerous much smaller islands, it is situated 11 kilometres off the coast of northeastern Venezuela and 130 kilometres south of Grenada. It shares maritime boundaries with Barbados to the northeast, Grenada to the northwest and Venezuela to the south and west. Trinidad and Tobago is generally considered to be part of the West Indies. The island country's capital is Port of Spain, while its largest and most populous city is San Fernando.

United Kingdom

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. The United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland, and many smaller islands within the British Isles. Northern Ireland shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland; otherwise, the United Kingdom is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel, the Celtic Sea and the Irish Sea. The total area of the United Kingdom is 242,495 square kilometres (93,628 sq mi), with an estimated 2023 population of over 68 million people.

Judicial Committee of the Privy Council

Judicial Committee of the Privy Council

The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) is the highest court of appeal for the Crown Dependencies, the British Overseas Territories, some Commonwealth countries and a few institutions in the United Kingdom. Established on 14 August 1833 to hear appeals formerly heard by the King-in-Council, the Privy Council formerly acted as the court of last resort for the entire British Empire, other than for the United Kingdom itself.

Source: "Politics of Barbados", Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, (2022, November 21st), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Barbados.

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Further Reading

Government of Barbados

Owen Arthur

Democratic Labour Party (Barbados)

Prime Minister of Barbados

Elections in Barbados

Lloyd Erskine Sandiford

Parliament of Barbados

House of Assembly of Barbados

Monarchy of Barbados

David Thompson (Barbadian politician)

Mia Mottley

Freundel Stuart

2018 Barbadian general election

President of Barbados

Joseph Atherley

People's Party for Democracy and Development

2022 Barbadian general election
See also
References
  1. ^ Caribbean 360 21 December 2007.
  2. ^ "Jamaica Observer Limited". Jamaica Observer. Retrieved 26 January 2022.
  3. ^ Barbados' criminal court system
Further reading
External links
Categories

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