Malaysia

Malaysia used as a label for the Malay Archipelago on a 1914 map from a United States atlas

The name Malaysia is a combination of the word Malays and the Latin-Greek suffix -ia/-ία^[16] which can be translated as 'land of the Malays'.^[17] The origin of the word Melayu is subject to various theories. It may derive from the Sanskrit Himalaya, referring to areas high in the mountains, or Malaiyur-pura, meaning 'mountain town'.^[18] Another similar theory claims its origin lies in the Tamil words malai and ur meaning 'mountain' and 'city, land', respectively.^[19][20][21] Another suggestion is that it derives from the Pamalayu campaign. A final suggestion is that it comes from a Javanese word meaning 'to run', from which a river, the Sungai Melayu ('Melayu river'), was named due to its strong current.^[18] Similar-sounding variants have also appeared in accounts older than the 11th century, as toponyms for areas in Sumatra or referring to a larger region around the Strait of Malacca.^[22] The Sanskrit text Vayu Purana, thought to have been in existence since the first millennium CE, mentioned a land named 'Malayadvipa' which was identified by certain scholars as the modern Malay peninsula.^{[23][24][25][26][27]} Other notable accounts are by the 2nd-century Ptolemy's Geographia that used the name Malayu Kulon for the west coast of Golden Chersonese, and the 7th-century Yijing's account of Malayu.^[22]

At some point, the Melayu Kingdom took its name from the Sungai Melayu.^[18][28] Melayu then became associated with Srivijaya,^[22] and remained associated with various parts of Sumatra, especially Palembang, where the founder of the Malacca Sultanate is thought to have come from.^[29] It is only thought to have developed into an ethnonym as Malacca became a regional power in the 15th century. Islamisation established an ethnoreligious identity in Malacca, with the term Melayu beginning to appear as interchangeable with Melakans. It may have specifically referred to local Malays speakers thought loyal to the Malaccan Sultan. The initial Portuguese use of Malayos reflected this, referring only to the ruling people of Malacca. The prominence of traders from Malacca led Melayu to be associated with Muslim traders, and from there became associated with the wider cultural and linguistic group.^[22] Malacca and later Johor claimed they were the centre of Malay culture, a position supported by the British which led to the term Malay becoming more usually linked to the Malay peninsula rather than Sumatra.^[29]

Before the onset of European colonisation, the Malay Peninsula was known natively as Tanah Melayu ('Malay Land').^[30] Under a racial classification created by a German scholar Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, the natives of maritime Southeast Asia were grouped into a single category, the Malay race.^[31][32] Following the expedition of French navigator Jules Dumont d'Urville to Oceania in 1826, he later proposed the terms of Malaysia, Micronesia and Melanesia to the Société de Géographie in 1831, distinguishing these Pacific cultures and island groups from the existing term Polynesia. Dumont d'Urville described Malaysia as "an area commonly known as the East Indies".^[33] In 1850, the English ethnologist George Samuel Windsor Earl, writing in the Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia, proposed naming the islands of Southeast Asia as "Melayunesia" or "Indunesia", favouring the former.^[34] The name Malaysia gained some use to label what is now the Malay Archipelago.^[35] In modern terminology, Malay remains the name of an ethnoreligious group of Austronesian people predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula and portions of the adjacent islands of Southeast Asia, including the east coast of Sumatra, the coast of Borneo, and smaller islands that lie between these areas.^[36]

The state that gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1957 took the name the Federation of Malaya, chosen in preference to other potential names such as Langkasuka, after the historic kingdom located at the upper section of the Malay Peninsula in the first millennium CE.^[37][38] The name Malaysia was adopted in 1963 when the existing states of the Federation of Malaya, plus Singapore, North Borneo and Sarawak formed a new federation.^[39][d] One theory posits the name was chosen so that si represented the inclusion of Singapore, North Borneo, and Sarawak to Malaya in 1963.^[39] Politicians in the Philippines contemplated renaming their state Malaysia before the modern country took the name.^[41]

Discover more about Etymology related topics

Malay Archipelago

Malay Archipelago

The Malay Archipelago or also called the Indo-Australian Archipelago is the archipelago between Mainland Southeast Asia and Australia. It has also been called the "Malay world," "Nusantara", "East Indies" and other names over time. The name was taken from the 19th-century European concept of a Malay race, later based on the distribution of Austronesian languages.

Sanskrit

Sanskrit

Sanskrit is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late Bronze Age. Sanskrit is the sacred language of Hinduism, the language of classical Hindu philosophy, and of historical texts of Buddhism and Jainism. It was a link language in ancient and medieval South Asia, and upon transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia, East Asia and Central Asia in the early medieval era, it became a language of religion and high culture, and of the political elites in some of these regions. As a result, Sanskrit had a lasting impact on the languages of South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, especially in their formal and learned vocabularies.

Tamil language

Tamil language

Tamil is a Dravidian language natively spoken by the Tamil people of South Asia. Tamil is an official language of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, the sovereign nations of Sri Lanka and Singapore, and the Indian Union territory of Puducherry. Tamil is also spoken by significant minorities in the four other South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, and the Union Territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is also spoken by the Tamil diaspora found in many countries, including Malaysia, Myanmar, South Africa, United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia and Mauritius. Tamil is also natively spoken by Sri Lankan Moors. One of 22 scheduled languages in the Constitution of India, Tamil was the first to be classified as a classical language of India.

Pamalayu

Pamalayu

The Pamalayu campaign was a diplomatic and military expeditionary force sent by the Javanese King Kertanegara of Singhasari to conquer the Sumatran Melayu Kingdom. It was decreed in 1275, though perhaps not undertaken until later.

Javanese language

Javanese language

Javanese is a Malayo-Polynesian language spoken by the Javanese people from the central and eastern parts of the island of Java, Indonesia. There are also pockets of Javanese speakers on the northern coast of western Java. It is the native language of more than 98 million people.

Vayu Purana

Vayu Purana

The Vayu Purana is a Sanskrit text and one of the eighteen major Puranas of Hinduism. Vayu Purana is mentioned in the manuscripts of the Mahabharata and other Hindu texts, which has led scholars to propose that the text is among the oldest in the Puranic genre. Vayu and Vayaviya Puranas do share a very large overlap in their structure and contents, possibly because they once were the same, but with continuous revisions over the centuries, the original text became two different texts, and the Vayaviya text came also to be known as the Brahmanda Purana.

Golden Chersonese

Golden Chersonese

The Golden Chersonese or Golden Khersonese, meaning the Golden Peninsula, was the name used for the Malay Peninsula by Greek and Roman geographers in classical antiquity, most famously in Claudius Ptolemy's 2nd-century Geography.

Melayu Kingdom

Melayu Kingdom

The Melayu Kingdom was a classical Buddhist kingdom located in Southeast Asia.

Srivijaya

Srivijaya

Srivijaya was a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra, which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th to the 12th century AD. Srivijaya was the first polity to dominate much of western Maritime Southeast Asia. Due to its location, the Srivijaya developed complex technology utilizing maritime resources. In addition, its economy became progressively reliant on the booming trade in the region, thus transforming it into a prestige goods-based economy.

Malacca Sultanate

Malacca Sultanate

The Malacca Sultanate was a Malay sultanate based in the modern-day state of Malacca, Malaysia. Conventional historical thesis marks c. 1400 as the founding year of the sultanate by King of Singapura, Parameswara, also known as Iskandar Shah, although earlier dates for its founding have been proposed. At the height of the sultanate's power in the 15th century, its capital grew into one of the most important transshipment ports of its time, with territory covering much of the Malay Peninsula, the Riau Islands and a significant portion of the northern coast of Sumatra in present-day Indonesia.

Ethnonym

Ethnonym

An ethnonym is a name applied to a given ethnic group. Ethnonyms can be divided into two categories: exonyms and autonyms, or endonyms.

Johor Sultanate

Johor Sultanate

The Johor Sultanate was founded by Malaccan Sultan Mahmud Shah's son, Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah II in 1528. Johor was part of the Malaccan Sultanate before the Portuguese conquered Malacca's capital in 1511. At its height, the sultanate controlled modern-day Johor, Pahang, Terengganu, and territories stretching from the river Klang to the Linggi and Tanjung Tuan, Muar, Batu Pahat, Singapore, Pulau Tinggi and other islands off the east coast of the Malay peninsula, the Karimun islands, the islands of Bintan, Bulang, Lingga and Bunguran, and Bengkalis, Kampar and Siak in Sumatra. During the colonial era, the mainland part was administered by the British, and the insular part by the Dutch, thus breaking up the sultanate into Johor and Riau. In 1946, the British section became part of the Malayan Union. Two years later, it joined the Federation of Malaya and subsequently, the Federation of Malaysia in 1963. In 1949, the Dutch section became part of Indonesia.

The Malacca Sultanate played a major role in spreading Islam throughout the Malay Archipelago.

Evidence of modern human habitation in Malaysia dates back 40,000 years.^[42] In the Malay Peninsula, the first inhabitants are thought to be Negritos.^[43] Traders and settlers from India and China arrived as early as the first century AD, establishing trading ports and coastal towns in the second and third centuries. Their presence resulted in strong Indian and Chinese influences on the local cultures, and the people of the Malay Peninsula adopted the religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. Sanskrit inscriptions appear as early as the fourth or fifth century.^[44] The Kingdom of Langkasuka arose around the second century in the northern area of the Malay Peninsula, lasting until about the 15th century.^[37] Between the 7th and 13th centuries, much of the southern Malay Peninsula was part of the maritime Srivijayan empire. By the 13th and the 14th century, the Majapahit empire had successfully wrested control over most of the peninsula and the Malay Archipelago from Srivijaya.^[45] In the early 15th century, Parameswara, a runaway king of the former Kingdom of Singapura linked to the old Srivijayan court, founded the Malacca Sultanate.^[46] The spread of Islam increased following Parameswara's conversion to that religion. Malacca was an important commercial centre during this time, attracting trade from around the region.^[47]

The Dutch fleet battling with the Portuguese armada as part of the Dutch–Portuguese War in 1606 to gain control of Malacca

In 1511, Malacca was conquered by Portugal,^[47] after which it was taken by the Dutch in 1641. In 1786, the British Empire established a presence in Malaya, when the Sultan of Kedah leased Penang Island to the British East India Company. The British obtained the town of Singapore in 1819,^[48] and in 1824 took control of Malacca following the Anglo-Dutch Treaty. By 1826, the British directly controlled Penang, Malacca, Singapore, and the island of Labuan, which they established as the crown colony of the Straits Settlements. By the 20th century, the states of Pahang, Selangor, Perak, and Negeri Sembilan, known together as the Federated Malay States, had British residents appointed to advise the Malay rulers, to whom the rulers were bound to defer by treaty.^[49] The remaining five states on the peninsula, known as the Unfederated Malay States, while not directly under British rule, also accepted British advisers around the turn of the 20th century. Development on the peninsula and Borneo were generally separate until the 19th century. Under British rule the immigration of Chinese and Indians to serve as labourers was encouraged.^[50] The area that is now Sabah came under British control as North Borneo when both the Sultan of Brunei and the Sultan of Sulu transferred their respective territorial rights of ownership, between 1877 and 1878.^[51] In 1842, Sarawak was ceded by the Sultan of Brunei to James Brooke, whose successors ruled as the White Rajahs over an independent kingdom until 1946, when it became a crown colony.^[52]

In the Second World War, the Japanese Army invaded and occupied Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore for over three years. During this time, ethnic tensions were raised and nationalism grew.^[53] Popular support for independence increased after Malaya was reconquered by Allied forces.^[54] Post-war British plans to unite the administration of Malaya under a single crown colony called the "Malayan Union" met with strong opposition from the Malays, who opposed the weakening of the Malay rulers and the granting of citizenship to the ethnic Chinese. The Malayan Union, established in 1946, and consisting of all the British possessions in the Malay Peninsula with the exception of Singapore, was quickly dissolved and replaced on 1 February 1948 by the Federation of Malaya, which restored the autonomy of the rulers of the Malay states under British protection.^[55]

Leader of the Malayan Communist Party Lee Meng holding a rifle during the Malayan Emergency, 1951

During this time, the mostly ethnically Chinese rebels under the leadership of the Malayan Communist Party launched guerrilla operations designed to force the British out of Malaya. The Malayan Emergency (1948–1960) involved a long anti-insurgency campaign by Commonwealth troops in Malaya.^[56] On 31 August 1957, Malaya became an independent member of the Commonwealth of Nations.^[57] After this a plan was put in place to federate Malaya with the crown colonies of North Borneo (which joined as Sabah), Sarawak, and Singapore. The date of federation was planned to be 31 August 1963 so as to coincide with the anniversary of Malayan independence; however, federation was delayed until 16 September 1963 in order for a United Nations survey of support for federation in Sabah and Sarawak, called for by parties opposed to federation including Indonesia's Sukarno and the Sarawak United Peoples' Party, to be completed.^[58][59]

Federation brought heightened tensions including a conflict with Indonesia as well as continual conflicts against the Communists in Borneo and the Malayan Peninsula, which escalated to the Sarawak Communist Insurgency and Second Malayan Emergency together with several other issues such as the cross-border attacks into North Borneo by Moro pirates from the southern islands of the Philippines, Singapore being expelled from the Federation in 1965,^[60][61] and racial strife. This strife culminated in the 13 May race riots in 1969.^[62] After the riots, the controversial New Economic Policy was launched by Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak, trying to increase the share of the economy held by the bumiputera.^[63] Under Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad there was a period of rapid economic growth and urbanization beginning in the 1980s. The economy shifted from being agriculturally based to one based on manufacturing and industry. Numerous mega-projects were completed, such as the Petronas Towers, the North–South Expressway, the Multimedia Super Corridor, and the new federal administrative capital of Putrajaya.^[39] However, in the late 1990s, the Asian financial crisis almost caused the collapse of the currency and the stock and property markets, although they later recovered.^[64] The 1MDB scandal was a major global corruption scandal that implicated then-Prime Minister Najib Razak in 2015.^[65] The scandal contributed to the first change in the ruling political party since independence in the 2018 general election.^[66] In the 2020s, the country was gripped by a political crisis that coincided with health and economic crises caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.^[67] This was then followed by an earlier general election in November 2022, which resulted in the first hung parliament in the nation's history. Opposition leader Anwar Ibrahim's Pakatan Harapan (PH) coalition won 82 seats and former Prime Minister Muhyiddin Yassin's Perikatan Nasional (PN) gained 73 seats. Prime Minister Ismail Sabri Yaakob's ruling Barisan Nasional (BN) coalition was the biggest loser, securing just 30 seats in the 222-member parliament.^[68] On 24 November 2022, Anwar Ibrahim was sworn in as the 10th Prime Minister of Malaysia.^[69]

Discover more about History related topics

History of Malaysia

History of Malaysia

Malaysia is located on a strategic sea lane that exposes it to global trade and various cultures. The name "Malaysia" is a modern concept, created in the second half of the 20th century. However, contemporary Malaysia regards the entire history of Malaya and Borneo, spanning thousands of years back to prehistoric times, as its own history.

Malacca Sultanate

Malacca Sultanate

The Malacca Sultanate was a Malay sultanate based in the modern-day state of Malacca, Malaysia. Conventional historical thesis marks c. 1400 as the founding year of the sultanate by King of Singapura, Parameswara, also known as Iskandar Shah, although earlier dates for its founding have been proposed. At the height of the sultanate's power in the 15th century, its capital grew into one of the most important transshipment ports of its time, with territory covering much of the Malay Peninsula, the Riau Islands and a significant portion of the northern coast of Sumatra in present-day Indonesia.

India

India

India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area and the second-most populous country. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west; China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; its Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand, Myanmar, and Indonesia.

China

China

China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and borders fourteen countries by land, the most of any country in the world, tied with Russia. With an area of approximately 9.6 million square kilometres (3,700,000 sq mi), it is the world's third largest country by total land area. The country consists of 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four municipalities, and two special administrative regions. The national capital is Beijing, and the most populous city and largest financial center is Shanghai.

Hinduism

Hinduism

Hinduism is an Indian religion or dharma, a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global population, known as Hindus. The word Hindu is an exonym, and while Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, many practitioners refer to their religion as Sanātana Dharma, a modern usage, which refers to the idea that its origins lie beyond human history, as revealed in the Hindu texts. Another endonym is Vaidika Dharma, the dharma related to the Vedas.

Buddhism

Buddhism

Buddhism, also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in present-day North India as a śramaṇa–movement in the 5th century BCE, and gradually spread throughout much of Asia via the Silk Road. It is the world's fourth-largest religion, with over 520 million followers (Buddhists) who comprise seven percent of the global population.

Langkasuka

Langkasuka

Langkasuka was an ancient Malay Hindu-Buddhist kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula. The name is Sanskrit in origin; it is thought to be a combination of langkha for "resplendent land" -sukkha for "bliss". The kingdom, along with Old Kedah, is among the earliest kingdoms founded on the Malay Peninsula. The exact location of the kingdom is of some debate, but archaeological discoveries at Yarang near Pattani, Thailand suggest a probable location. The kingdom is proposed to have been established in the 1st century, perhaps between 80 and 100 AD.

Majapahit

Majapahit

Majapahit, also known as Wilwatikta, was a Javanese Hindu-Buddhist thalassocratic empire in Southeast Asia that was based on the island of Java. It existed from 1293 to circa 1527 and reached its peak of glory during the era of Hayam Wuruk, whose reign from 1350 to 1389 was marked by conquests that extended throughout Southeast Asia. His achievement is also credited to his prime minister, Gajah Mada. According to the Nagarakretagama written in 1365, Majapahit was an empire of 98 tributaries, stretching from Sumatra to New Guinea; consisting of present-day Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei, southern Thailand, Timor Leste, southwestern Philippines although the scope of Majapahit sphere of influence is still the subject of debate among historians. The nature of Majapahit relations and influences upon its overseas vassals, and also its status as an empire are still provoking discussions.

Kingdom of Singapura

Kingdom of Singapura

The Kingdom of Singapura was an Indianised Malay Hindu-Buddhist kingdom thought to have been established during the early history of Singapore upon its main island Pulau Ujong, then also known as Temasek, from 1299 until its fall in 1398. Conventional view marks c. 1299 as the founding year of the kingdom by Sang Nila Utama, whose father is Sang Sapurba, a semi-divine figure who according to legend is the ancestor of several Malay monarchs in the Malay World. The historicity of this kingdom based on the account given in the Malay Annals is uncertain, and many historians only consider its last ruler Parameswara a historically attested figure. Archaeological evidence from Fort Canning Hill and the nearby banks of the Singapore River has nevertheless demonstrated the existence of a thriving settlement and a trade port in the 14th century.

Dutch–Portuguese War

Dutch–Portuguese War

The Dutch–Portuguese War was a global armed conflict involving Dutch forces, in the form of the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company, as well as their allies against the Iberian Union, and after 1640, the Portuguese Empire. Beginning in 1602, the conflict primarily involved the Dutch companies invading Portuguese colonies in the Americas, Africa, and the East Indies. The war can be thought of as an extension of the Eighty Years' War being fought in Europe at the time between Spain and the Netherlands, as Portugal was in a dynastic union with the Spanish Crown after the War of the Portuguese Succession, for most of the conflict. However, the conflict had little to do with the war in Europe and served mainly as a way for the Dutch to gain an overseas empire and control trade at the cost of the Portuguese. English forces also assisted the Dutch at certain points in the war. Because of the commodity at the center of the conflict, this war would be nicknamed the Spice War.

Malacca City

Malacca City

Malacca City is the capital city of the Malaysian state of Malacca, in Melaka Tengah District. As of 2019 it has a population of 579,000. Malacca City is one of the cleanest cities in South East Asia, being awarded as National Winner of Asean Clean Tourist City Standard Award 2018–2020 recently. It is the oldest Malaysian city on the Straits of Malacca, having become a successful entrepôt in the era of the Malacca Sultanate. The present-day city was founded by Parameswara, a Sumatran prince who escaped to the Malay Peninsula when Srivijaya fell to the Majapahit. Following the establishment of the Malacca Sultanate, the city drew the attention of traders from the Middle East, South Asia, and East Asia, as well as the Portuguese, who intended to dominate the trade route in Asia. After Malacca was conquered by Portugal, the city became an area of conflict when the sultanates of Aceh and Johor attempted to take control from the Portuguese.

Malacca

Malacca

Malacca is a state in Malaysia located in the southern region of the Malay Peninsula, next to the Strait of Malacca. Its capital is Malacca City, dubbed the Historic City, which has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 7 July 2008.

The Parliament of Malaysia, the building that houses the members of the Dewan Rakyat

Malaysia is a federal constitutional elective monarchy; the only federal country in Southeast Asia.^[70] The system of government is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system, a legacy of British rule.^[71] The head of state is the King, whose official title is the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The King is elected to a five-year term by and from among the nine hereditary rulers of the Malay states. The other four states, which have titular Governors, do not participate in the selection. By informal agreement the position is rotated among the nine,^[71] and has been held by Abdullah of Pahang since 31 January 2019.^[72] The King's role has been largely ceremonial since changes to the constitution in 1994, picking ministers and members of the upper house.^[73]

Legislative power is divided between federal and state legislatures. The bicameral federal parliament consists of the lower house, the House of Representatives and the upper house, the Senate.^[74] The 222-member House of Representatives is elected for a maximum term of five years from single-member constituencies. All 70 senators sit for three-year terms; 26 are elected by the 13 state assemblies, and the remaining 44 are appointed by the King upon the Prime Minister's recommendation.^[47] The parliament follows a multi-party system and the government is elected through a first-past-the-post system.^[47][75] Parliamentary elections are held at least once every five years,^[47] the most recent of which took place in May 2018.^[66] Before 2018, registered voters aged 21 and above could vote for the members of the House of Representatives and, in most of the states, for the state legislative chamber. Voting is not mandatory.^[76] In July 2019, a bill to lower the voting age to 18 years old was officially passed.^[77]

The Perdana Putra houses the office of Malaysia's Prime Minister

Executive power is vested in the Cabinet, led by the Prime Minister. The prime minister must be a member of the House of Representatives, who in the opinion of His Majesty the King, commands the support of a majority of members. The Cabinet is chosen from members of both houses of Parliament.^[47] The Prime Minister is both the head of cabinet and the head of government.^[73] As a result of the 2018 general election Malaysia was governed by the Pakatan Harapan political alliance,^[66] although Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad resigned amid a political crisis in 2020. In March 2020, the Perikatan Nasional coalition formed under Prime Minister Muhyiddin Yassin,^[78] before Muhyiddin lost majority support and was replaced by deputy Prime Minister Ismail Sabri Yaakob, a veteran politician from UMNO, in August 2021.^[79][80] As a result of the 2022 Malaysian general election, a hung parliament was elected. Anwar Ibrahim of the PH coalition was appointed as the new Prime Minister to lead the coalition government of PH, BN, Gabungan Parti Sarawak (GPS), Gabungan Rakyat Sabah (GRS) and several other political parties and independents. Meanwhile PN, the only political coalition not in the coalition government became the Opposition. Malaysia's legal system is based on English Common Law.^[47] Although the judiciary is theoretically independent, its independence has been called into question and the appointment of judges lacks accountability and transparency.^[81] The highest court in the judicial system is the Federal Court, followed by the Court of Appeal and two high courts, one for Peninsular Malaysia and one for East Malaysia. Malaysia also has a special court to hear cases brought by or against royalty.^[82]

Race is a significant force in politics.^[47] Affirmative actions such as the New Economic Policy^[63] and the National Development Policy which superseded it, were implemented to advance the standing of the bumiputera, consisting of Malays and the indigenous tribes who are considered the original inhabitants of Malaysia, over non-bumiputera such as Malaysian Chinese and Malaysian Indians.^[83] These policies provide preferential treatment to bumiputera in employment, education, scholarships, business, and access to cheaper housing and assisted savings. However, it has generated greater interethnic resentment.^[84] There is ongoing debate over whether the laws and society of Malaysia should reflect Islamism or secularism.^[85] Islamic criminal laws passed by the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party with the support of United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) state assemblymen in the state legislative assembly of Kelantan have been blocked by the federal government on the basis that criminal laws are the responsibility of the federal government.^[86][87][88]

After the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) lost power at the 2018 Malaysian general election, Malaysia's ranking increased by 9 places in the 2019 Democracy Index to 43th compared to the previous year, and is classified as a 'flawed democracy'.^[89] Malaysia's ranking in the 2020 Press Freedom Index increased by 22 places to 101st compared to the previous year, making it one of two countries in Southeast Asia without a 'Difficult situation' or 'Very Serious situation' with regards to press freedom.^[90] However, it fell 18 places the following year due to the policies of the Perikatan Nasional government.^[91]

Malaysia is marked at 48 and 62nd place according to the 2021 Corruption Perceptions Index, indicating above average levels of corruption. Freedom House noted Malaysia as "partly free" in its 2018 survey.^[92] A lawsuit filed by Department of Justice (DOJ), alleged that at least $3.5 billion involving former prime minister Najib Razak had been stolen from Malaysia's 1MDB state-owned fund, known as the 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal.^[93][94][95]

Administrative divisions

Perlis Kedah Penang Kelantan Terengganu Perak Selangor Negeri Sembilan Malacca Johor Pahang Sarawak Sabah Labuan Kuala Lumpur Putrajaya West Malaysia East Malaysia (Blue) States (Red) Federal Territories South China Sea Strait of Malacca Gulf of Thailand Sulu Sea Celebes Sea Brunei Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Philippines Singapore Thailand

Malaysia is a federation of 13 states and three federal territories.^[96] These are divided between two regions, with 11 states and two federal territories on Peninsular Malaysia and the other two states and one federal territory in East Malaysia. Each state is divided into districts, which are then divided into mukim. In Sabah and Sarawak districts are grouped into divisions.^[97]

Governance of the states is divided between the federal and the state governments, with different powers reserved for each, and the Federal government has direct administration of the federal territories.^[98] Each state has a unicameral State Legislative Assembly whose members are elected from single-member constituencies. State governments are led by Chief Ministers,^[47] who are state assembly members from the majority party in the assembly. In each of the states with a hereditary ruler, the Chief Minister is normally required to be a Malay, appointed by the ruler upon the recommendation of the Prime Minister.^[99] Except for state elections in Sarawak, by convention state elections are held concurrently with the federal election.^[73]

Lower-level administration is carried out by local authorities, which include city councils, district councils, and municipal councils, although autonomous statutory bodies can be created by the federal and state governments to deal with certain tasks.^[100] The federal constitution puts local authorities outside of the federal territories under the exclusive jurisdictions of the state government,^[101] although in practice the federal government has intervened in the affairs of state local governments.^[102] There are 154 local authorities, consisting of 14 city councils, 38 municipal councils and 97 district councils.

The 13 states are based on historical Malay kingdoms, and 9 of the 11 Peninsular states, known as the Malay states, retain their royal families. The King is elected by and from the nine rulers to serve a five-year term.^[47] This King appoints governors serving a four-year term for the states without monarchies, after consultations with the chief minister of that state. Each state has its own written constitution.^[103] Sabah and Sarawak have considerably more autonomy than the other states, most notably having separate immigration policies and controls, and a unique residency status.^{[104][105][106]} Federal intervention in state affairs, lack of development, and disputes over oil royalties have occasionally led to statements about secession from leaders in several states such as Penang, Johor, Kelantan, Sabah and Sarawak, although these have not been followed up and no serious independence movements exist.^{[107][108][109][110]}

States

A list of thirteen states and each state capital (in brackets):

Federal territories

1. Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur
2. Federal Territory of Labuan
3. Federal Territory of Putrajaya

Foreign relations and military

Former Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad meeting with US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo at the Prime Minister's Office in Putrajaya, 2018

A founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)^[111] and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC),^[112] the country participates in many international organisations such as the United Nations,^[113] the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation,^[114] the Developing 8 Countries,^[115] and the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).^[116] It has chaired ASEAN, the OIC, and the NAM in the past.^[47] A former British colony, it is also a member of the Commonwealth of Nations.^[117] Kuala Lumpur was the site of the first East Asia Summit in 2005.^[118]

Malaysia's foreign policy is officially based on the principle of neutrality and maintaining peaceful relations with all countries, regardless of their political system.^[119] The government attaches a high priority to the security and stability of Southeast Asia,^[118] and seeks to further develop relations with other countries in the region. Historically the government has tried to portray Malaysia as a progressive Islamic nation^[119] while strengthening relations with other Islamic states.^[118] A strong tenet of Malaysia's policy is national sovereignty and the right of a country to control its domestic affairs.^[73] Malaysia signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.^[120][121]

The Spratly Islands are disputed by many states in the area, and a large portion of the South China Sea is claimed by China. Unlike its neighbours of Vietnam and the Philippines, Malaysia historically avoided conflicts with China.^[122] However, after the encroachment of Chinese ships in Malaysian territorial waters,^[123] and breach of airspace by their military aircraft, Malaysia has become active in condemning China.^[124][125] Brunei and Malaysia in 2009 announced an end to claims of each other's land, and committed to resolve issues related to their maritime borders.^[126] The Philippines has a dormant claim to the eastern part of Sabah.^[127] Singapore's land reclamation has caused tensions,^[128] and minor maritime and land border disputes exist with Indonesia.^[127][129]

Clockwise from top right: Scorpène-class submarine, PT-91M MBT tank, Malaysian Army paratrooper with M4, and Su-30MKM fighter aircraft.

The Malaysian Armed Forces have three branches: the Malaysian Army, Royal Malaysian Navy and the Royal Malaysian Air Force. There is no conscription, and the required age for voluntary military service is 18. The military uses 1.5% of the country's GDP, and employs 1.23% of Malaysia's manpower.^[130] Malaysian peacekeeping forces have contributed to many UN peacekeeping missions, such as in Congo, Iran–Iraq, Namibia, Cambodia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Somalia, Kosovo, East Timor and Lebanon.^[47][131]

The Five Power Defence Arrangements is a regional security initiative which has been in place for almost 40 years. It involves joint military exercises held among Malaysia, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom.^[132] Joint exercises and war games have also been held with Brunei,^[133] China,^[134] India,^[135] Indonesia,^[136] Japan,^[137] and the United States.^[138] Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam have agreed to host joint security force exercises to secure their maritime border and tackle issues such as illegal immigration, piracy, and smuggling.^{[139][140][141]} Previously there were fears that extremist militants activities in the Muslim areas of the southern Philippines and southern Thailand^[142] would spill over into Malaysia. Because of this, Malaysia began to increase its border security.

Human rights

Homosexuality is illegal in Malaysia,^[143][144] and the authorities has imposed punishments such as caning and imprisonment.^[145][146] Human trafficking and sex trafficking in Malaysia are significant problems.^[147][148] There has also been cases of vigilante executions and beatings against LGBT individuals in Malaysia.^[149][150] The illegality of homosexuality in Malaysia has also been the forefront of Anwar Ibrahim's sodomy trials, which Anwar has responded to it being politically motivated, a response supported by the United Nations' (UN) Working Group on Arbitrary Detention along with Amnesty International and the Human Rights Watch.^{[151][152][153]}

The death penalty is in use for serious crimes such as murder, terrorism, drug trafficking, and kidnapping,^[154][155] but in June 2022, Malaysian law minister Wan Junaidi pledged to abolish the capital punishment and replace it with other punishments at the discretion of the court.^[156]

Discover more about Government and politics related topics

Government of Malaysia

Government of Malaysia

The Government of Malaysia, officially the Federal Government of Malaysia, is based in the Federal Territory of Putrajaya, with the exception of the legislative branch, which is located in Kuala Lumpur. Malaysia is a federation comprising the 11 States of Malaya, the Borneo States of Sabah and Sarawak, and 3 Federal Territories operating within a constitutional monarchy under the Westminster system and is categorised as a representative democracy. The federal government of Malaysia adheres to and is created by the Federal Constitution of Malaysia, the supreme law of the land.

Parliament of Malaysia

Parliament of Malaysia

The Parliament of Malaysia is the national legislature of Malaysia, based on the Westminster system. The bicameral parliament consists of the Dewan Rakyat and the Dewan Negara. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King), as the head of state, is the third component of Parliament.

Members of the Dewan Rakyat, 15th Malaysian Parliament

Members of the Dewan Rakyat, 15th Malaysian Parliament

This is a list of the members of the Dewan Rakyat of the 15th Parliament of Malaysia.

Federation

Federation

A federation is a political entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing provinces, states, or other regions under a central federal government (federalism). In a federation, the self-governing status of the component states, as well as the division of power between them and the central government, is constitutionally entrenched and may not be altered by a unilateral decision, neither by the component states nor the federal political body. Alternatively, a federation is a form of government in which sovereign power is formally divided between a central authority and a number of constituent regions so that each region retains some degree of control over its internal affairs.

Constitutional monarchy

Constitutional monarchy

A constitutional monarchy, parliamentary monarchy, or democratic monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not alone in decision making. Constitutional monarchies differ from absolute monarchies in that they are bound to exercise powers and authorities within limits prescribed by an established legal framework.

Elective monarchy

Elective monarchy

An elective monarchy is a monarchy ruled by an elected monarch, in contrast to a hereditary monarchy in which the office is automatically passed down as a family inheritance. The manner of election, the nature of candidate qualifications, and the electors vary from case to case. Historically, it was common for elective monarchies to transform into hereditary ones over time or for hereditary ones to acquire at least occasional elective aspects.

British Empire

British Empire

The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23 per cent of the world population at the time, and by 1920, it covered 35.5 million km2 (13.7 million sq mi), 24 per cent of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its constitutional, legal, linguistic, and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was described as "the empire on which the sun never sets", as the Sun was always shining on at least one of its territories.

Monarchies of Malaysia

Monarchies of Malaysia

The monarchies of Malaysia refer to the constitutional monarchy system as practised in Malaysia. The political system of Malaysia is based on the Westminster parliamentary system in combination with features of a federation.

Abdullah of Pahang

Abdullah of Pahang

Al-Sultan Abdullah Ri'ayatuddin Al-Mustafa Billah Shah ibni Almarhum Sultan Haji Ahmad Shah Al-Musta'in Billah has reigned as the 16th Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King) of Malaysia and the 6th Sultan of Pahang since January 2019. He was proclaimed as sultan on 15 January 2019, succeeding his father, Sultan Ahmad Shah, whose abdication was decided at a Royal Council meeting on 11 January 2019.

Constitution of Malaysia

Constitution of Malaysia

The Federal Constitution of Malaysia, which came into force in 1957 as the Constitution of the Federation of Malaya and was amended in 1963 to form the Constitution of Malaysia, is the supreme law of Malaysia and contains a total of 183 articles. It is a written legal document influenced by two previous documents, the Federation of Malaya Agreement 1948 and the Independence Constitution of 1957. The Federation was initially called the Federation of Malaya and it adopted its present name, Malaysia, when the states of Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore became part of the Federation. The Constitution establishes the Federation as a constitutional monarchy, having the Yang di-Pertuan Agong as the Head of State with largely ceremonial roles. It provides for the establishment and organisation of three main branches of the government: the bicameral legislative branch called the Parliament, which consists of the House of Representatives and the Senate ; the executive branch led by the Prime Minister and his Cabinet Ministers and the judicial branch headed by the Federal Court.

1993 amendments to the Constitution of Malaysia

1993 amendments to the Constitution of Malaysia

The 1993 amendments to the Constitution of Malaysia was passed by the Malaysian parliament with the aim of removing legal immunity of the royalty. The changes, which saw the amendments of Articles 32, 38, 42, 63, 72 and 181 in the Constitution of Malaysia, was implemented in March 1993. Before the amendments were made, the Constitution granted rulers who have violated the law not to be prosecuted by the criminal court unless he voluntarily wishes to surrender his legal immunity.

Lower house

Lower house

A lower house is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature, the other chamber being the upper house. Despite its official position "below" the upper house, in many legislatures worldwide, the lower house has come to wield more power or otherwise exert significant political influence. The lower house, typically, is the larger of the two chambers, meaning its members are more numerous.

Topographic map of Malaysia; Mount Kinabalu is the highest summit in the country.

Malaysia is the 66th largest country by total land area, with a land area of 329,613 km² (127,264 sq mi). It has land borders with Thailand in West Malaysia, and Indonesia and Brunei in East Malaysia.^[157] It is linked to Singapore by a narrow causeway and a bridge. The country also has maritime boundaries with Vietnam^[158] and the Philippines.^[159] The land borders are defined in large part by geological features such as the Perlis River, the Golok River and the Pagalayan Canal, whilst some of the maritime boundaries are the subject of ongoing contention.^[157] Brunei forms what is almost an enclave in Malaysia,^[160] with the state of Sarawak dividing it into two parts. Malaysia is the only country with territory on both the Asian mainland and the Malay archipelago.^[161] The Strait of Malacca, lying between Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia, is one of the most important thoroughfares in global commerce, carrying 40 per cent of the world's trade.^[162]

The two parts of Malaysia, separated from each other by the South China Sea, share a largely similar landscape in that both Peninsular and East Malaysia feature coastal plains rising to hills and mountains.^[157] Peninsular Malaysia, containing 40 per cent of Malaysia's land area,^[161] extends 740 km (460 mi) from north to south, and its maximum width is 322 km (200 mi).^[163] It is divided between its east and west coasts by the Titiwangsa Mountains,^[164] rising to a peak elevation of 2,183 metres (7,162 ft) at Mount Korbu,^[165] part of a series of mountain ranges running down the centre of the peninsula.^[161] These mountains are heavily forested, and mainly composed of granite and other igneous rocks. Much of it has been eroded, creating a karst landscape.^[161] The range is the origin of some of Peninsular Malaysia's river systems. The coastal plains surrounding the peninsula reach a maximum width of 50 kilometres (31 mi), and the peninsula's coastline is nearly 1,931 km (1,200 mi) long, although harbours are only available on the western side.^[163]

East Malaysia, on the island of Borneo, has a coastline of 2,607 km (1,620 mi).^[157] It is divided between coastal regions, hills and valleys, and a mountainous interior.^[161] The Crocker Range extends northwards from Sarawak,^[161] dividing the state of Sabah. It is the location of the 4,095 m (13,435 ft) high Mount Kinabalu,^[166][167] the tallest mountain in Malaysia. Mount Kinabalu is located in the Kinabalu National Park, which is protected as one of the four UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Malaysia.^[168] The highest mountain ranges form the border between Malaysia and Indonesia. Sarawak contains the Mulu Caves, the largest cave system in the world, in the Gunung Mulu National Park which is also a World Heritage Site.^[161] The largest river in Malaysia is the Rajang.

Around these two halves of Malaysia are numerous islands, the largest of which is Banggi.^[169] The local climate is equatorial and characterised by the annual southwest (April to October) and northeast (October to February) monsoons.^[163] The temperature is moderated by the presence of the surrounding oceans.^[161] Humidity is usually high, and the average annual rainfall is 250 cm (98 in).^[163] The climates of the Peninsula and the East differ, as the climate on the peninsula is directly affected by wind from the mainland, as opposed to the more maritime weather of the East. Local climates can be divided into three regions, highland, lowland, and coastal.^[161] Climate change will cause sea level rise and increased rainfall, increasing flood risks and leading to droughts.^[170]

Biodiversity and conservation

Native species in Malaysia, clockwise from top-right: oriental pied hornbills, hawksbill sea turtle, proboscis monkey, and Malayan tiger.

Malaysia signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 12 June 1993, and became a party to the convention on 24 June 1994.^[171] It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, which was received by the convention on 16 April 1998.^[172] The country is megadiverse with a high number of species and high levels of endemism.^[173] It is estimated to contain 20 per cent of the world's animal species.^[174] High levels of endemism are found on the diverse forests of Borneo's mountains, as species are isolated from each other by lowland forest.^[161]

There are about 210 mammal species in the country.^[166] Over 620 species of birds have been recorded in Peninsular Malaysia,^[174] with many endemic to the mountains there. A high number of endemic bird species are also found in Malaysian Borneo.^[161] 250 reptile species have been recorded in the country, with about 150 species of snakes^[175] and 80 species of lizards.^[166] There are about 150 species of frogs,^[166] and thousands of insect species.^[166] The Exclusive economic zone of Malaysia is 334,671 km² (129,217 sq mi) and 1.5 times larger than its land area. It is mainly in the South China Sea.^[176][177] Some of its waters are in the Coral Triangle, a biodiversity hotspot.^[178] The waters around Sipadan island are the most biodiverse in the world.^[174] Bordering East Malaysia, the Sulu Sea is a biodiversity hotspot, with around 600 coral species and 1200 fish species.^[179] The unique biodiversity of Malaysian Caves always attracts lovers of ecotourism from all over the world.^[180]

Nearly 4,000 species of fungi, including lichen-forming species have been recorded from Malaysia. Of the two fungal groups with the largest number of species in Malaysia, the Ascomycota and their asexual states have been surveyed in some habitats (decaying wood, marine and freshwater ecosystems, as parasites of some plants, and as agents of biodegradation), but have not been or have been only poorly surveyed in other habitats (as endobionts, in soils, on dung, as human and animal pathogens); the Basidiomycota are only partly surveyed: bracket fungi, and mushrooms and toadstools have been studied, but Malaysian rust and smut fungi remain very poorly known. Without doubt, many more fungal species in Malaysia have not yet been recorded, and it is likely that many of those, when found, will be new to science.^[181]

Some species of Rafflesia can grow up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) in diameter, making them the largest flowers in the world.

About two thirds of Malaysia was covered in forest as of 2007,^[163] with some forests believed to be 130 million years old.^[166] The forests are dominated by dipterocarps.^[182] Lowland forest covers areas below 760 m (2,490 ft),^[163] and formerly East Malaysia was covered in such rainforest,^[182] which is supported by its hot wet climate.^[161] There are around 14,500 species of flowering plants and trees.^[166] Besides rainforests, there are over 1,425 km² (550 sq mi) of mangroves in Malaysia,^[163] and a large amount of peat forest. At higher altitudes, oaks, chestnuts, and rhododendrons replace dipterocarps.^[161] There are an estimated 8,500 species of vascular plants in Peninsular Malaysia, with another 15,000 in the East.^[183] The forests of East Malaysia are estimated to be the habitat of around 2,000 tree species, and are one of the most biodiverse areas in the world, with 240 different species of trees every hectare.^[161] These forests host many members of the Rafflesia genus, the largest flowers in the world,^[182] with a maximum diameter of 1 m (3 ft 3 in).^[184]

Logging, along with cultivation practices has devastated tree cover, causing severe environmental degradation in the country. Over 80 per cent of Sarawak's rainforest has been logged.^[161] Floods in East Malaysia have been worsened by the loss of trees, and over 60 per cent of the Peninsula's forest have been cleared.^[184] With current rates of deforestation, mainly for the palm oil industry, the forests are predicted to be extinct by 2020.^[161][185] Deforestation is a major problem for animals, fungi and plants, having caused species such as Begonia eiromischa to go extinct.^[186] Most remaining forest is found inside reserves and national parks.^[184] Habitat destruction has proved a threat for marine life.^[179] Illegal fishing is another major threat,^[179] with fishing methods such as dynamite fishing and poisoning depleting marine ecosystems.^[187] Leatherback turtle numbers have dropped 98 per cent since the 1950s.^[175] Hunting has also been an issue for some animals,^[184] with overconsumption and the use of animal parts for profit endangering many animals, from marine life^[179] to tigers.^[186] Marine life is also detrimentally affected by uncontrolled tourism.^[188]

The Malaysian government aims to balance economic growth with environmental protection, but has been accused of favouring big business over the environment.^[184] Some state governments are now trying to counter the environmental impact and pollution created by deforestation;^[182] and the federal government is trying to cut logging by 10 per cent each year. A total of 28 national parks have been established, 23 in East Malaysia and five in the Peninsula.^[184] Tourism has been limited in biodiverse areas such as Sipadan island.^[188] Wildlife trafficking is a large issue, and the Malaysian government has held talks with the governments of Brunei and Indonesia to standardise anti-trafficking laws.^[189]

Discover more about Geography related topics

Geography of Malaysia

Geography of Malaysia

The geography of Malaysia includes both the physical and the human geography of Malaysia, a Southeast Asian country made up of two major landmasses separated by water—Peninsular Malaysia to the west and East Malaysia to the east—and numerous smaller islands that surround those landmasses. Peninsular Malaysia is on the southernmost part of the Malay Peninsula, south of Thailand, north of Singapore and east of the Indonesian island of Sumatra; East Malaysia comprises most of the northern part of Borneo island, and shares land borders with Brunei to the north and Indonesian Borneo to the south.

Mount Kinabalu

Mount Kinabalu

Mount Kinabalu is the highest mountain in Borneo and Malaysia. With an elevation of 13,435 feet (4,095 m), it is third-highest peak of an island on Earth, and 20th most prominent mountain in the world by topographic prominence. The mountain is located in Ranau district, West Coast Division of Sabah, Malaysia. It is protected as Kinabalu Park, a World Heritage Site.

Borders of Malaysia

Borders of Malaysia

The borders of Malaysia include land and maritime borders with Brunei, Indonesia and Thailand and shared maritime boundaries with Philippines, Singapore and Vietnam.

Indonesia

Indonesia

Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guinea. Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagic state and the 14th-largest country by area, at 1,904,569 square kilometres. With over 275 million people, Indonesia is the world's fourth-most populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority country. Java, the world's most populous island, is home to more than half of the country's population.

Brunei

Brunei

Brunei, formally Brunei Darussalam, is a country located on the north coast of the island of Borneo in Southeast Asia. Apart from its South China Sea coast, it is completely surrounded by the Malaysian state of Sarawak. It is separated into two parts by the Sarawak district of Limbang. Brunei is the only sovereign state entirely on Borneo; the remainder of the island is divided between Malaysia and Indonesia. As of 2020, its population was 460,345, of whom about 100,000 live in the capital and largest city, Bandar Seri Begawan. The government is an absolute monarchy ruled by its Sultan, entitled the Yang di-Pertuan, and implements a combination of English common law and sharia law, as well as general Islamic practices.

Malaysia–Singapore Second Link

Malaysia–Singapore Second Link

The Malaysia–Singapore Second Link is a bridge connecting Singapore and Johor, Malaysia. In Singapore, it is officially known as the Tuas Second Link. The bridge was built to reduce the traffic congestion at the Johor–Singapore Causeway and was opened to traffic on 2 January 1998. It was officially opened by Singapore's then Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong with Mahathir Mohamad, who was then Prime Minister of Malaysia. The bridge supports a dual-three lane carriageway linking Kampong Ladang at Tanjung Kupang, Johor to Jalan Ahmad Ibrahim at Tuas, Singapore. The total length of the bridge over water is 1.92 kilometres (1.19 mi). The actual distance between both checkpoints is approximately 6 kilometres (3.7 mi). At Malaysian side, the bridge is connected to the Second Link Expressway E3 also known as Linkedua Expressway, which links from Senai North Interchange Exit 253 at North–South Expressway E2, Senai Airport and Taman Perling, Johor Bahru via its extension known as Johor Bahru Parkway E3. In Singapore, the bridge connects to the Ayer Rajah Expressway.

Maritime boundary

Maritime boundary

A maritime boundary is a conceptual division of the Earth's water surface areas using physiographic or geopolitical criteria. As such, it usually bounds areas of exclusive national rights over mineral and biological resources, encompassing maritime features, limits and zones. Generally, a maritime boundary is delineated at a particular distance from a jurisdiction's coastline. Although in some countries the term maritime boundary represents borders of a maritime nation that are recognized by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, maritime borders usually serve to identify the edge of international waters.

Perlis River

Perlis River

The Perlis River is a river in Perlis, Malaysia.

Golok River

Golok River

The Golok River is a river that lies on the border between Malaysia and Thailand. It is spanned only by the Malaysian–Thai Friendship Bridge. The name of the river in Malay is Sungai Golok, meaning 'river of machete'.

Mount Korbu

Mount Korbu

Mount Korbu is a mountain in Hulu Kinta, Perak, Malaysia, about 25 km from Ipoh. It is the highest peak in the state of Perak, located on the Titiwangsa Mountains, the southernmost section of the Tenasserim Hills.

Granite

Granite

Granite is a coarse-grained (phaneritic) intrusive igneous rock composed mostly of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase. It forms from magma with a high content of silica and alkali metal oxides that slowly cools and solidifies underground. It is common in the continental crust of Earth, where it is found in igneous intrusions. These range in size from dikes only a few centimeters across to batholiths exposed over hundreds of square kilometers.

Karst

Karst

Karst is a topography formed from the dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone, dolomite, and gypsum. It is characterized by underground drainage systems with sinkholes and caves. It has also been documented for more weathering-resistant rocks, such as quartzite, given the right conditions. Subterranean drainage may limit surface water, with few to no rivers or lakes. However, in regions where the dissolved bedrock is covered or confined by one or more superimposed non-soluble rock strata, distinctive karst features may occur only at subsurface levels and can be totally missing above ground.

Development of real GDP per capita, 1820 to 2018

Malaysia is a relatively open state-oriented and newly industrialised market economy.^[190] It has the world's 36th-largest economy by nominal GDP and the 31st-largest by PPP. In 2017, the large service sector contributed to 53.6% of total GDP, the industrial sector 37.6%, and the small agricultural sector roughly 8.8%.^[191] Malaysia has a low official unemployment rate of 3.9%.^[192] Its foreign exchange reserves are the world's 24th-largest.^[193] It has a labour force of about 15 million, which is the world's 34th-largest.^[194] Malaysia's large automotive industry ranks as the world's 22nd-largest by production.^[195]

Malaysia is the world's 23th-largest exporter and 25th-largest importer.^[196][197] However, economic inequalities exist between different ethnic groups.^[198] The Chinese make up about one-quarter of the population, but accounts for 70 per cent of the country's market capitalisation.^[199] Chinese businesses in Malaysia are part of the larger bamboo network, a network of overseas Chinese businesses in the Southeast Asian market sharing common family and cultural ties.^[200]

International trade, facilitated by the shipping route in adjacent Strait of Malacca, and manufacturing are the key sectors.^{[201][202][203]} Malaysia is an exporter of natural and agricultural resources, and petroleum is a major export.^[47] Malaysia has once been the largest producer of tin,^[204] rubber and palm oil in the world. Manufacturing has a large influence in the country's economy,^[205] although Malaysia's economic structure has been moving away from it.^[206] Malaysia remains one of the world's largest producers of palm oil.^[207]

Tourism is the third-largest contributor to Malaysia's GDP, after the manufacturing and commodities sectors.^[208] In 2019, the sector contributed about 15.9 per cent to the total GDP. According to the World Tourism Organization, Malaysia was the fourteenth-most visited country in the world, and the fourth-most visited country in Asia in 2019, with over 26.1 million visits.^[209] Malaysia was ranked 38th in the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2019.^[210] Its international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $19.8 billion.^[209]

The country has developed into a centre of Islamic banking, and has the highest numbers of female workers in that industry.^[211] Knowledge-based services are also expanding.^[206] In 2020, Malaysian exported high-tech products worth $92.1 billion, the second-highest in the ASEAN, after Singapore.^[212] Malaysia was ranked 36th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, and 32nd in the Global Competitiveness Report in 2022.^[213][214]

Infrastructure

North–South Expressway

Kuala Lumpur International Airport

Railway transport in Malaysia is state-run, and spans some 2,783 kilometres (1,729 mi).^[215] As of 2016^[update], Malaysia has the world's 26th-largest road network, with some 238,823 kilometres (148,398 mi) of roads. Malaysia's inland waterways are the world's 22nd-longest, and total 7,200 km (4,474 mi).^[216] Among Malaysia's 114 airports,^[217] among which the busiest is Kuala Lumpur International Airport in Kuala Lumpur, which is also the twelfth-busiest airport in Asia. Among the 7 federal ports, the major one is Port Klang,^[218] which is the thirteenth-busiest container port.^[219] Malaysia's flag carrier is Malaysia Airlines, providing international and domestic air services.^[220]

Malaysia's telecommunications network is second only to Singapore's in Southeast Asia, with 4.7 million fixed-line subscribers and more than 30 million cellular subscribers.^[221][222] There are 200 industrial parks along with specialised parks such as Technology Park Malaysia and Kulim Hi-Tech Park.^[223] Fresh water is available to over 95% of the population, with ground water accounting for 90% of the freshwater resources.^[224][225] Although rural areas have been the focus of great development, they still lag behind areas such as the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia.^[226] The telecommunication network, although strong in urban areas, is less available to the rural population.^[221]

Malaysia's energy infrastructure sector is largely dominated by Tenaga Nasional, the largest electric utility company in Southeast Asia. Customers are connected to electricity through the National Grid.^[227] The other two electric utility companies in the country are Sarawak Energy and Sabah Electricity.^[228] In 2013, Malaysia's total power generation capacity was over 29,728 megawatts. Total electricity generation was 140,985.01 GWh and total electricity consumption was 116,087.51 GWh.^[229] Energy production in Malaysia is largely based on oil and natural gas, owing to Malaysia's oil reserves and natural gas reserves, which is the fourth largest in Asia-Pacific region.^[230]

Discover more about Economy related topics

Economy of Malaysia

Economy of Malaysia

The economy of Malaysia is the fifth largest in Southeast Asia and the 38th largest in the world in terms of GDP. The 2018 labour productivity of Malaysia was measured at Int$55,360 per worker, the third highest in ASEAN. The 2021 Global Competitiveness Report ranked Malaysian economy the 25th most competitive country economy in the world.

Open economy

Open economy

An open economy is a type of economy where not only domestic factors but also entities in other countries engage in trade of products. Trade can take the form of managerial exchange, technology transfers, and all kinds of goods and services. Certain exceptions exist that cannot be exchanged; the railway services of a country, for example, cannot be traded with another country to avail the service.

Market economy

Market economy

A market economy is an economic system in which the decisions regarding investment, production and distribution to the consumers are guided by the price signals created by the forces of supply and demand. The major characteristic of a market economy is the existence of factor markets that play a dominant role in the allocation of capital and the factors of production.

List of countries by GDP (nominal)

List of countries by GDP (nominal)

Gross domestic product (GDP) is the market value of all final goods and services from a nation in a given year. Countries are sorted by nominal GDP estimates from financial and statistical institutions, which are calculated at market or government official exchange rates. Nominal GDP does not take into account differences in the cost of living in different countries, and the results can vary greatly from one year to another based on fluctuations in the exchange rates of the country's currency. Such fluctuations may change a country's ranking from one year to the next, even though they often make little or no difference in the standard of living of its population.

List of countries by GDP (PPP)

List of countries by GDP (PPP)

GDP (PPP) means gross domestic product based on purchasing power parity. This article includes a list of countries by their forecast estimated GDP (PPP). Countries are sorted by GDP (PPP) forecast estimates from financial and statistical institutions that calculate using market or government official exchange rates. The data given on this page are based on the international dollar, a standardized unit used by economists. Certain regions that are not widely considered countries such as Hong Kong also show up in the list if they are distinct jurisdiction areas or economic entities.

List of countries by foreign-exchange reserves

List of countries by foreign-exchange reserves

Foreign-exchange reserves, also called Forex reserves, are, in a strict sense, only foreign-currency deposits held by nationals and monetary authorities. However, in popular usage and in the list below, it also includes gold reserves, special drawing rights (SDRs) and International Monetary Fund (IMF) reserve position because this total figure, which is usually more accurately termed as official reserves or international reserves or official international reserves, is more readily available and also arguably more meaningful.

List of countries by labour force

List of countries by labour force

This is a list of countries by size of the labour force mostly based on The World Factbook.

Automotive industry in Malaysia

Automotive industry in Malaysia

The automotive industry in Malaysia consists of 27 vehicle producers and over 640 component manufacturers. The Malaysian automotive industry is the third largest in Southeast Asia, and the 23rd largest in the world, with an annual production output of over 500,000 vehicles. The automotive industry contributes 4% or RM 40 billion to Malaysia's GDP, and employs a workforce of over 700,000 throughout a nationwide ecosystem.

List of countries by motor vehicle production

List of countries by motor vehicle production

This is a list of countries by motor vehicle production based on Organisation Internationale des Constructeurs d'Automobiles (OICA) and other data from 2016 and earlier.Figures include passenger cars, light commercial vehicles, minibuses, trucks, buses and coaches.

List of countries by exports

List of countries by exports

List of countries by imports

List of countries by imports

This is a list of countries by total imports, based on the International Trade Centre except for the European Union.

Bamboo network

Bamboo network

The Bamboo network or the Chinese Commonwealth is a term used to conceptualize connections between businesses operated by the Overseas Chinese community in Southeast Asia. The Overseas Chinese business networks constitute the single most dominant private business groups in Southeast Asia. It links the Overseas Chinese business community of Southeast Asia, namely Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, the Philippines, and Myanmar with the economies of Greater China. The Overseas Chinese play an exceptionally prominent role in Southeast Asia's business sector.

Population density (person per km²) in 2010

The percentage distribution of Malaysian population by ethnic group based on 2010 census

According to the Malaysian Department of Statistics, the country's population was 32,447,385 in 2020,^[231] making it the 42nd most populated country. According to a 2012 estimate, the population is increasing by 1.54 percent per year. Malaysia has an average population density of 96 people per km², ranking it 116th in the world for population density. People within the 15–64 age group constitute 69.5 percent of the total population; the 0–14 age group corresponds to 24.5 percent; while senior citizens aged 65 years or older make up 6.0 percent. In 1960, when the first official census was recorded in Malaysia, the population was 8.11 million. 91.8 per cent of the population are Malaysian citizens.^[232]

Malaysian citizens are divided along local ethnic lines, with 69.7 per cent considered bumiputera.^[233] The largest group of bumiputera are Malays, who are defined in the constitution as Muslims who practise Malay customs and culture. They play a dominant role politically.^[234] Bumiputera status is also accorded to the non-Malay indigenous groups of Sabah and Sarawak: which includes Dayaks (Iban, Bidayuh, Orang Ulu), Kadazan-Dusun, Melanau, Bajau and others. Non-Malay bumiputeras make up more than half of Sarawak's population and over two thirds of Sabah's population.^[235][236] There are also indigenous or aboriginal groups in much smaller numbers on the peninsular, where they are collectively known as the Orang Asli.^[237] Laws over who gets bumiputera status vary between states.^[238]

There are also two other non-Bumiputera local ethnic groups. 22.5 per cent of the population are Malaysian Chinese, while 6.8 per cent are Malaysian Indian.^[233] The local Chinese have historically been more dominant in the business community. Local Indians are mostly of Tamil descent.^[239][240] Malaysian citizenship is not automatically granted to those born in Malaysia, but is granted to a child born of two Malaysian parents outside Malaysia. Dual citizenship is not permitted.^[241] Citizenship in the states of Sabah and Sarawak in Malaysian Borneo are distinct from citizenship in Peninsular Malaysia for immigration purposes. Every citizen is issued a biometric smart chip identity card known as MyKad at the age of 12, and must carry the card at all times.^[242]

The population is concentrated on Peninsular Malaysia,^[243] where 20 million out of approximately 28 million Malaysians live.^[47] 70 per cent of the population is urban.^[157] Due to the rise in labour-intensive industries,^[244] the country is estimated to have over 3 million migrant workers; about 10 per cent of the population.^[245] Sabah-based NGOs estimate that out of the 3 million that make up the population of Sabah, 2 million are illegal immigrants.^[246] Malaysia hosts a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 171,500. Of this population, approximately 79,000 are from Burma, 72,400 from the Philippines, and 17,700 from Indonesia. Malaysian officials are reported to have turned deportees directly over to human smugglers in 2007, and Malaysia employs RELA, a volunteer militia with a history of controversies, to enforce its immigration law.^[247]

v t e Largest cities and municipalities in Malaysia Department of Statistics, Malaysia (2020) [1]
	Rank	Name	State	Pop.	Rank	Name	State	Pop.
Kuala Lumpur Kajang	1	Kuala Lumpur	Federal Territories	1,982,112	11	Ipoh	Perak	759,952	Seberang Perai Subang Jaya
	2	Kajang	Selangor	1,047,356	12	Seremban	Negeri Sembilan	681,541
	3	Seberang Perai	Penang	946,092	13	Iskandar Puteri	Johor	575,977
	4	Subang Jaya	Selangor	902,086	14	Kuantan	Pahang	548,014
	5	Klang	Selangor	902,025	15	Sungai Petani	Kedah	545,053
	6	Johor Bahru	Johor	858,118	16	Ampang Jaya	Selangor	531,904
	7	Shah Alam	Selangor	812,327	17	Kota Kinabalu	Sabah	500,425
	8	George Town	Penang	794,313	18	Malacca City	Malacca	453,904
	9	Petaling Jaya	Selangor	771,687	19	Sandakan	Sabah	439,050
	10	Selayang	Selangor	764,327	20	Alor Setar	Kedah	423,868

Religion

Dominant religious confessions in Malaysia according to 2020 census.^[248]
Dark green: Muslim majority > 50%
Light green: Muslim plurality Blue: Christian majority > 50%

The constitution grants freedom of religion and makes Malaysia an officially secular state, while establishing Islam as the "religion of the Federation".^[249][250] According to the Population and Housing Census 2020 figures, ethnicity and religious beliefs correlate highly. Approximately 63.5% of the population practise Islam, 18.7% practise Buddhism, 9.1% Christianity, 6.1% Hinduism and 1.3% practise Confucianism, Taoism and other traditional Chinese religions. 2.7% declared no religion or practised other religions or did not provide any information.^[231] The states of Sarawak, Penang and the federal territory of Kuala Lumpur have non-Muslim majorities.^[251][252]

Sunni Islam of Shafi'i school of jurisprudence is the dominant branch of Islam in Malaysia,^[253][254] while 18% are nondenominational Muslims.^[255] The Malaysian constitution strictly defines what makes a "Malay", considering Malays those who are Muslim, speak Malay regularly, practise Malay customs, and lived in or have ancestors from Brunei, Malaysia and Singapore.^[161] Statistics from the 2010 Census indicate that 83.6% of the Chinese population identify as Buddhist, with significant numbers of adherents following Taoism (3.4%) and Christianity (11.1%), along with small Muslim populations in areas like Penang. The majority of the Indian population follow Hinduism (86.2%), with a significant minority identifying as Christians (6.0%) or Muslims (4.1%). Christianity is the predominant religion of the non-Malay bumiputera community (46.5%) with an additional 40.4% identifying as Muslims.^[231]

Muslims are obliged to follow the decisions of Syariah Courts (i.e. Shariah courts) in matters concerning their religion. The Islamic judges are expected to follow the Shafi'i legal school of Islam, which is the main madh'hab of Malaysia.^[253] The jurisdiction of Syariah courts is limited to Muslims in matters such as marriage, inheritance, divorce, apostasy, religious conversion, and custody among others. No other criminal or civil offences are under the jurisdiction of the Syariah courts, which have a similar hierarchy to the Civil Courts. The Civil Courts do not hear matters related to Islamic practices.^[256]

Languages

The distribution of language families of Malaysia shown by colours:

  Malayic

  Bornean

  Aslian

  Land Dayak

  Sama–Bajaw

  Philippine

  Chinese

  Areas with multiple languages

The official and national language of Malaysia is Malaysian Malay,^[157] a standardised form of the Malay language.^[257] The previously terminology as per government policy is Bahasa Malaysia (lit. 'Malaysian language')^{[258][259][260]} but now government policy uses "Bahasa Melayu" (Malay language) to refer the official language^[261] and both terms remain in use.^[262][263] The National Language Act 1967 specifies the Latin (Rumi) script as the official script of the national language, but does not prohibit the use of the traditional Jawi script.^[264]

English remains an active second language, with its use allowed for some official purposes under the National Language Act of 1967.^[264] In Sarawak, English is an official state language alongside Malaysian.^{[265][266][267]} Historically, English was the de facto administrative language; Malay became predominant after the 1969 race riots (13 May incident).^[268] Malaysian English, also known as Malaysian Standard English, is a form of English derived from British English. Malaysian English is widely used in business, along with Manglish, which is a colloquial form of English with heavy Malay, Chinese, and Tamil influences. The government discourages the use of non-standard Malay but has no power to issue compounds or fines to those who use what is perceived as improper Malay on their advertisements.^[269][270]

Many other languages are used in Malaysia, which contains speakers of 137 living languages.^[271] Peninsular Malaysia contains speakers of 41 of these languages.^[272] The native tribes of East Malaysia have their own languages which are related to, but easily distinguishable from, Malay. Iban is the main tribal language in Sarawak while Dusunic and Kadazan languages are spoken by the natives in Sabah.^[273] Chinese Malaysians predominantly speak Chinese dialects from the southern part of China. The more common Chinese varieties in the country are Mandarin, Cantonese, Hokkien, and so on.^[274] The Tamil language is used predominantly by the majority of Malaysian Indians.^[275] A small number of Malaysians have European ancestry and speak creole languages, such as the Portuguese-based Malaccan Creoles,^[276] and the Spanish-based Chavacano language.^[277]

Health

Malaysia operates an efficient and widespread two-tier healthcare system, consisting of a universal healthcare system and a co-existing private healthcare system; provided by highly subsidized healthcare through its extensive network of public hospitals and clinics.^[278] The Ministry of Health (MOH) is the main provider of healthcare services to the country's population.^[279] Malaysia's healthcare system is considered to be among the most developed in Asia, which contributes to its thriving medical tourism industry.^[280]

Malaysia spent 3.83% of its GDP on healthcare in 2019.^[281] In 2020, the overall life expectancy in Malaysia at birth was 76 years (74 years for males and 78 years for females),^[282] and it had an infant mortality rate of 7 deaths per 1000 births.^[283] Malaysia had a total fertility rate of 2.0 in 2020, which is just below the replacement level of 2.1.^[284] In 2020, the country's crude birth rate was 16 per 1000 people, and the crude death rate was 5 per 1000 people.^[285][286]

In 2021, the principal cause of death among Malaysian adults was coronary artery disease, representing 17% of the medically certified deaths in 2020—being followed by pneumonia; which accounted for 11% of the deaths.^[287] Transport accidents are considered a major health hazard, as Malaysia, relative to its population, has one of the highest traffic fatality rates in the world.^[288] Smoking is also considered a major health issue across the country.^[289]

Education

Ministry of Education, Putrajaya

The education system of Malaysia features a non-compulsory kindergarten education followed by six years of compulsory primary education, and five years of optional secondary education.^[290] Schools in the primary education system are divided into two categories: national primary schools, which teach in Malay, and vernacular schools, which teach in Chinese or Tamil.^[291] Secondary education is conducted for five years. In the final year of secondary education, students sit for the Malaysian Certificate of Education examination.^[292] Since the introduction of the matriculation programme in 1999, students who completed the 12-month programme in matriculation colleges can enroll in local universities. However, in the matriculation system, only 10 per cent of places are open to non-bumiputera students.^[293]

Discover more about Demographics related topics

Demographics of Malaysia

Demographics of Malaysia

The demographics of Malaysia are represented by the multiple ethnic groups that exist in the country. Malaysia's population, according to the 2010 census, is 28,334,000 including non-citizens, which makes it the 42nd most populated country in the world. Of these, 5.72 million live in East Malaysia and 22.5 million live in Peninsular Malaysia. The population distribution is uneven, with some 79% of its citizens concentrated in Peninsular Malaysia, which has an area of 131,598 square kilometres (50,810.27 sq mi), constituting under 40% of the total area of Malaysia.

List of countries by population in 2010

List of countries by population in 2010

This is a list of sovereign states and other territories by population, with population figures estimated for 2010. The figures are estimates for the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) "2010 annual statistics", which lists countries and territories with population over 100,000.

Bumiputera (Malaysia)

Bumiputera (Malaysia)

Bumiputera or Bumiputra is a term used in Malaysia to describe Malays, the Orang Asli of Peninsular Malaysia, and various indigenous peoples of East Malaysia. The term is sometimes controversial, and has similar usage in the Malay world, used similarly in Indonesia and Brunei.

Malays (ethnic group)

Malays (ethnic group)

Malays are an Austronesian ethnic group native to eastern Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula and coastal Borneo, as well as the smaller islands that lie between these locations — areas that are collectively known as the Malay world. These locations are today part of the countries of Malaysia, Indonesia, southern part of Thailand, Singapore and Brunei Darussalam.

Dayak people

Dayak people

The Dayak or Dyak or Dayuh are one of the native groups of Borneo. It is a loose term for over 200 riverine and hill-dwelling ethnic groups, located principally in the central and southern interior of Borneo, each with its own dialect, customs, laws, territory, and culture, although common distinguishing traits are readily identifiable. Dayak languages are categorised as part of the Austronesian languages. The Dayak were animist in belief; however, since the 19th century there has been mass conversion to Christianity as well as Islam due to the spreading of Abrahamic religions.

Iban people

Iban people

The Ibans or Sea Dayaks are a branch of the Dayak peoples on the island of Borneo in South East Asia. Dayak is a title given by the westerners to the local people of Borneo island. It is believed that the term "Iban" was originally an exonym used by the Kayans, who – when they initially came into contact with them – referred to the Sea Dayaks in the upper Rajang river region as the "Hivan".

Bidayuh

Bidayuh

Bidayuh is the collective name for several indigenous groups found in southern Sarawak, Malaysia and northern West Kalimantan, Indonesia, on the island of Borneo, which are broadly similar in language and culture. The name Bidayuh means 'inhabitants of land'. Originally from the western part of Borneo, the collective name Land Dayak was first used during the period of Rajah James Brooke, the White Rajah of Sarawak. At times, they were also lesser referred to as Klemantan people. They constitute one of the main indigenous groups in Sarawak and West Kalimantan and live in towns and villages around Kuching and Serian in the Malaysian state of Sarawak, while in the Indonesian province of West Kalimantan they are mainly concentrated in the northern Sanggau Regency. In Sarawak, most of Bidayuh population can be found within 40 km of the geographical area known as Greater Kuching, within the Kuching and Serian Division. They are the second-largest Dayak ethnic group in Sarawak after the Iban and one of the major Dayak tribes in West Kalimantan.

Kadazan-Dusun

Kadazan-Dusun

Kadazan-Dusun also less-known as "Mamasok Sabah" are two indigenous peoples of Sabah, Malaysia—the ethnic groups Kadazan and Dusun. The Kadazandusun is the largest native group of Bumiputra in Sabah. They are also known as "Mamasok", which means "originals" or "indigenous people". Most of the Kadazan-Dusun tribes believed they are descendants of Nunuk Ragang people. Kadazan-Dusun has been recognised as an indigenous nation of Borneo with documented heritage by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) since 2004. Kadazan-Dusun is also recognised as a bumiputera group in Sabah that has its own special rights from land rights, rivers, to maintaining customs.

Melanau people

Melanau people

Melanau or A-Likou is an ethnic group indigenous to Sarawak, Malaysia. They are among the earliest settlers of Sarawak. They speak in the Melanau language, which is a part of the North Bornean branch of Malayo-Polynesian languages.

Malaysian Chinese

Malaysian Chinese

Malaysian Chinese, alternatively Chinese Malaysians, are Malaysian citizens of Han Chinese ethnicity. They form the second largest ethnic group after the Malay majority, constituting 22.4% of the Malaysian population. Most of them are descendants of Southern Chinese immigrants who arrived in Malaysia between the early 19th and the mid-20th century. Malaysian Chinese form the second largest community of Overseas Chinese in the world, after Thai Chinese. Malaysian Chinese are traditionally dominant in the business sector of the Malaysian economy.

Malaysian Indians

Malaysian Indians

Malaysian Indians or Indian Malaysians are Malaysian citizens of Indian or South Asian ancestry. Today, they form the third-largest group in Malaysia after the Malays and the Chinese. Most are descendants of those who migrated from India during the British Malaya era from the early 19th to mid-20th centuries.

Identity document

Identity document

An identity document is any document that may be used to prove a person's identity. If issued in a small, standard credit card size form, it is usually called an identity card, or passport card. Some countries issue formal identity documents, as national identification cards that may be compulsory or non-compulsory, while others may require identity verification using regional identification or informal documents. When the identity document incorporates a person's photograph, it may be called photo ID.

A traditional house being built in Sabah

Malaysia has a multi-ethnic, multicultural, and multilingual society. The original culture of the area stemmed from indigenous tribes that inhabited it, along with the Malays who later moved there. Substantial influence exists from Chinese and Indian culture, dating back to when foreign trade began. Other cultural influences include the Persian, Arabic, and British cultures. Due to the structure of the government, coupled with the social contract theory, there has been minimal cultural assimilation of ethnic minorities.^[294] Some cultural disputes exist between Malaysia and neighbouring countries, notably Indonesia.^[295]

In 1971, the government created a "National Cultural Policy", defining Malaysian culture. It stated that Malaysian culture must be based on the culture of the indigenous peoples of Malaysia, that it may incorporate suitable elements from other cultures, and that Islam must play a part in it.^[296] It also promoted the Malay language above others.^[297] This government intervention into culture has caused resentment among non-Malays who feel their cultural freedom was lessened. Both Chinese and Indian associations have submitted memorandums to the government, accusing it of formulating an undemocratic culture policy.^[296]

Fine arts

A craftsman making batik. Malaysian batik is usually patterned with floral motifs with light colouring.

Traditional Malaysian art was mainly centred on the areas of carving, weaving, and silversmithing.^[298] Traditional art ranges from handwoven baskets from rural areas to the silverwork of the Malay courts. Common artworks included ornamental kris, beetle nut sets, and woven batik and songket fabrics. Indigenous East Malaysians are known for their wooden masks.^[161] Each ethnic group have distinct performing arts, with little overlap between them. However, Malay art does show some North Indian influence due to the historical influence of India.^[299]

Traditional Malay music and performing arts appear to have originated in the Kelantan-Pattani region with influences from India, China, Thailand, and Indonesia. The music is based around percussion instruments,^[299] the most important of which is the gendang (drum). There are at least 14 types of traditional drums.^[300] Drums and other traditional percussion instruments and are often made from natural materials.^[300] Music is traditionally used for storytelling, celebrating life-cycle events, and occasions such as a harvest.^[299] It was once used as a form of long-distance communication.^[300] In East Malaysia, gong-based musical ensembles such as agung and kulintang are commonly used in ceremonies such as funerals and weddings.^[301] These ensembles are also common in neighbouring regions such as in Mindanao in the Philippines, Kalimantan in Indonesia, and Brunei.^[301]

Malaysia has a strong oral tradition that has existed since before the arrival of writing, and continues today. Each of the Malay Sultanates created their own literary tradition, influenced by pre-existing oral stories and by the stories that came with Islam.^[302] The first Malay literature was in the Arabic script. The earliest known Malay writing is on the Terengganu stone, made in 1303.^[161] Chinese and Indian literature became common as the numbers of speakers increased in Malaysia, and locally produced works based in languages from those areas began to be produced in the 19th century.^[302] English has also become a common literary language.^[161] In 1971, the government took the step of defining the literature of different languages. Literature written in Malay was called "the national literature of Malaysia", literature in other bumiputera languages was called "regional literature", while literature in other languages was called "sectional literature".^[297] Malay poetry is highly developed, and uses many forms. The Hikayat form is popular, and the pantun has spread from Malay to other languages.^[302]

Cuisine

Teh tarik

Nasi lemak

The national drink and dish of Malaysia^[303][304]

Malaysia's cuisine reflects the multi-ethnic makeup of its population.^[305] Many cultures from within the country and from surrounding regions have greatly influenced the cuisine. Much of the influence comes from the Malay, Chinese, Indian, Thai, Javanese, and Sumatran cultures,^[161] largely due to the country being part of the ancient spice route.^[306] The cuisine is very similar to that of Singapore and Brunei,^[184] and also bears resemblance to Filipino cuisine.^[161] The different states have varied dishes,^[184] and often the food in Malaysia is different from the original dishes.^[240]

Sometimes food not found in its original culture is assimilated into another; for example, Chinese restaurants in Malaysia often serve Malay dishes.^[307] Food from one culture is sometimes also cooked using styles taken from another culture,^[184] For example, sambal belacan (shrimp paste) are commonly used as ingredients by Chinese restaurants to create the stir fried water spinach (kangkung belacan).^[308] This means that although much of Malaysian food can be traced back to a certain culture, they have their own identity.^[306] Rice is a staple food, and an important constituent of the country's culture.^[309] Chili is commonly found in local cuisine, although this does not necessarily make them spicy.^[305]

Media

Radio Televisyen Malaysia

Malaysia's main newspapers are owned by the government and political parties in the ruling coalition,^[310][311] although some major opposition parties also have their own, which are openly sold alongside regular newspapers. A divide exists between the media in the two halves of the country. Peninsular-based media gives low priority to news from the East, and often treats the eastern states as colonies of the Peninsula.^[312] As a result of this, East Malaysia region of Sarawak launched TV Sarawak as internet streaming beginning in 2014, and as TV station on 10 October 2020^[313] to overcome the low priority and coverage of Peninsular-based media and to solidify the representation of East Malaysia.^[314] The media have been blamed for increasing tension between Indonesia and Malaysia, and giving Malaysians a bad image of Indonesians.^[315] The country has Malay, English, Chinese, and Tamil dailies.^[312] Kadazandusun and Bajau news only available via TV broadcast Berita RTM.^[316] Written Kadazan news was once included in publications such as The Borneo Post, the Borneo Mail, the Daily Express, and the New Sabah Times, but publication has ceased with the newspaper or as a section.^[317][318]

Freedom of the press is limited, with numerous restrictions on publishing rights and information dissemination.^[319] The government has previously tried to crack down on opposition papers before elections.^[311] In 2007, a government agency issued a directive to all private television and radio stations to refrain from broadcasting speeches made by opposition leaders,^[320] a move condemned by politicians from the opposition Democratic Action Party.^[321] Sabah, where all tabloids but one are independent of government control, has the freest press in Malaysia.^[312] Laws such as the Printing Presses and Publications Act have also been cited as curtailing freedom of expression.^[322]

Holidays and festivals

Malaysia's largest Buddhist temple—Kek Lok Si in Penang—illuminated in preparation for the Chinese New Year

Malaysians observe a number of holidays and festivities throughout the year. Some are federally gazetted public holidays and some are observed by individual states. Other festivals are observed by particular ethnic or religion groups, and the main holiday of each major group has been declared a public holiday. The most observed national holiday is Hari Merdeka (Independence Day) on 31 August, commemorating the independence of the Federation of Malaya in 1957.^[161] Malaysia Day on 16 September commemorates federation in 1963.^[323] Other notable national holidays are Labour Day (1 May) and the King's birthday (first week of June).^[161]

Muslim holidays are prominent as Islam is the state religion; Hari Raya Puasa (also called Hari Raya Aidilfitri, Malay for Eid al-Fitr), Hari Raya Haji (also called Hari Raya Aidiladha, Malay for Eid ul-Adha), Maulidur Rasul (birthday of the Prophet), and others being observed.^[161] Malaysian Chinese celebrate festivals such as Chinese New Year and others relating to traditional Chinese beliefs. Wesak Day is observed and celebrated by Buddhists. Hindus in Malaysia celebrate Deepavali, the festival of lights,^[324] while Thaipusam is a religious rite which sees pilgrims from all over the country converge at the Batu Caves.^[325] Malaysia's Christian community celebrates most of the holidays observed by Christians elsewhere, most notably Christmas and Easter. In addition to this, the Dayak community in Sarawak celebrate a harvest festival known as Gawai,^[326] and the Kadazandusun community celebrate Kaamatan.^[327] Despite most festivals being identified with a particular ethnic or religious group, celebrations are universal. In a custom known as "open house" Malaysians participate in the celebrations of others, often visiting the houses of those who identify with the festival.^[223]

Sports

Traditional sports such as the martial art style Silat Melayu persist alongside modern sports.

Popular sports in Malaysia include association football, badminton, field hockey, bowls, tennis, squash, martial arts, horse riding, sailing, and skate boarding.^[223] Football is the most popular sport in Malaysia.^[328] Badminton matches also attract thousands of spectators, and since 1948 Malaysia has been one of four countries to hold the Thomas Cup, the world team championship trophy of men's badminton.^[329] The Malaysian Lawn Bowls Federation was registered in 1997.^[330] Squash was brought to the country by members of the British army, with the first competition being held in 1939.^[331] The Squash Racquets Association Of Malaysia was created on 25 June 1972.^[332] The men's national field hockey team ranked 10th in the world as of June 2022^[update].^[333] The 3rd Hockey World Cup was hosted at Merdeka Stadium in Kuala Lumpur, as well as the 10th cup.^[334] The country also has its own Formula One track – the Sepang International Circuit, with the first Malaysian Grand Prix held in 1999.^[335] Traditional sports include Silat Melayu, the most common style of martial arts practised by ethnic Malays.^[336]

The Federation of Malaya Olympic Council was formed in 1953, and received recognition by the IOC in 1954. It first participated in the 1956 Melbourne Olympic Games. The council was renamed the Olympic Council of Malaysia in 1964, and has participated in all but one Olympic games since its inception. The largest number of athletes ever sent to the Olympics was 57 to the 1972 Munich Olympic Games.^[337] Besides the Olympic Games, Malaysia also participates in the Paralympic Games.^[338] Malaysia has competed at the Commonwealth Games since 1950 as Malaya, and 1966 as Malaysia, and the games were hosted in Kuala Lumpur in 1998.^[339][340]

Discover more about Culture related topics

Culture of Malaysia

Culture of Malaysia

The culture of Malaysia draws on the varied cultures of the different people of Malaysia. The first people to live in the area were indigenous tribes that still remain; they were followed by the Malays, who moved there from mainland Asia in ancient times. Chinese and Indian cultural influences made their mark when trade began with those countries, and increased with immigration to Malaysia. Other cultures that heavily influenced that of Malaysia include Persian, Arabic, British. The many different ethnicities that currently exist in Malaysia have their own unique and distinctive cultural identities, with some crossover.

Sabah

Sabah

Sabah is a state of Malaysia located on the northern portion of Borneo, in the region of East Malaysia. Sabah has land borders with the Malaysian state of Sarawak to the southwest and Indonesia's North Kalimantan province to the south. The Federal Territory of Labuan is an island just off Sabah's west coast. Sabah shares maritime borders with Vietnam to the west and the Philippines to the north and east. Kota Kinabalu is the region capital city, the economic centre of the region, and the seat of the Sabah region government. Other major towns in Sabah include Sandakan and Tawau. The 2020 census recorded a population of 3,418,785 in the state. It has an equatorial climate with tropical rainforests, abundant with animal and plant species. The state has long mountain ranges on the west side which forms part of the Crocker Range National Park. Kinabatangan River, the second longest river in Malaysia runs through Sabah. The highest point of Sabah, Mount Kinabalu is also the highest point of Malaysia.

Chinese culture

Chinese culture

Chinese culture is one of the world's oldest cultures, originating thousands of years ago. The culture prevails across a large geographical region in East Asia and is extremely diverse, with customs and traditions varying greatly between provinces, cities, and even towns. The terms 'China' and the geographical landmass of 'China' have shifted across the centuries, with the last name being the Great Qing, before the name 'China' became commonplace in modernity.

Social contract (Malaysia)

Social contract (Malaysia)

The social contract in Malaysia is an artificial political construct first mooted in the 1980s, allegedly to justify the continuation of preferential policies for the majority Bumiputera population beyond the envisaged 20-year initial duration of the Malaysian New Economic Policy. Proponents of the construct allege that it reflects an understanding arrived at - prior to Malaya's independence in 1957 - by the country's "founding fathers"

Cultural assimilation

Cultural assimilation

Cultural assimilation is the process in which a minority group or culture comes to resemble a society's majority group or assimilate the values, behaviors, and beliefs of another group whether fully or partially.

Indonesia

Indonesia

Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guinea. Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagic state and the 14th-largest country by area, at 1,904,569 square kilometres. With over 275 million people, Indonesia is the world's fourth-most populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority country. Java, the world's most populous island, is home to more than half of the country's population.

Malaysian art

Malaysian art

Traditional Malaysian art is primarily composed of Malay art and Bornean art, is very similar with the other styles from Southeast Asia, such as Bruneian, Indonesian and Singaporean. Art has a long tradition in Malaysia, with Malay art that dating back to the Malay sultanates, has always been influenced by Chinese, Indian and Islamic arts, and also present, due to large population of Chinese and Indian in today's Malaysian demographics.

Music of Malaysia

Music of Malaysia

Music of Malaysia is the generic term for music that has been created in various genres in Malaysia. A great variety of genres in Malaysian music reflects the specific cultural groups within multiethnic Malaysian society: Malay, Chinese, Indian, Dayak, Kadazan-Dusun, Bajau, Orang Asli, Melanau, Kristang and others.

Malaysian literature

Malaysian literature

Malaysian literature is the collection of literary works produced in the Malay peninsula until 1963 and in Malaysia thereafter. Malaysian literature is typically written in any of the country's four main languages: Malay, English, Chinese and Tamil. It portrays various aspects of Malaysian life and comprises an important part of the culture of Malaysia.

Batik

Batik

Batik is an Indonesian technique of wax-resist dyeing applied to the whole cloth. This technique originated from the island of Java, Indonesia. Batik is made either by drawing dots and lines of the resist with a spouted tool called a canting, or by printing the resist with a copper stamp called a cap. The applied wax resists dyes and therefore allows the artisan to colour selectively by soaking the cloth in one colour, removing the wax with boiling water, and repeating if multiple colours are desired.

Malaysian batik

Malaysian batik

Malaysian batik is batik textile art in Malaysia, especially on the east coast of Malaysia. The most popular motifs are leaves and flowers. Malaysian batik depicting humans or animals are rare because Islam norms forbid animal images as decoration. However, the butterfly theme is a common exception. Malaysian batik is also famous for its geometrical designs, such as spirals. The method of Malaysian batik making is also quite different from those of Indonesian Javanese batik, the pattern is larger and simpler, it seldom or never uses canting to create intricate patterns and relies heavily on brush painting method to apply colours on fabrics. The colours also tend to be lighter and more vibrant than the deep coloured Javanese batik.

Kris

Kris

The kris, or keris in the Indonesian languages, is an Indonesian asymmetrical dagger with distinctive blade-patterning achieved through alternating laminations of iron and nickelous iron (pamor). Of Javanese origin, the kris is famous for its distinctive wavy blade, although many have straight blades as well, and is one of the weapons commonly used in the pencak silat martial art, native to Indonesia.