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Hostile architecture

From Wikipedia, in a visual modern way
Bolts installed on the front steps of a building to discourage sitting and sleeping
Bolts installed on the front steps of a building to discourage sitting and sleeping

Hostile architecture is an urban-design strategy that uses elements of the built environment to purposefully guide or restrict behaviour. It often targets people who use or rely on public space more than others, such as youth, poor people, and homeless people, by restricting the physical behaviours they can engage in.[1]

Also known as defensive architecture, hostile design, unpleasant design, exclusionary design, and defensive urban design, the term hostile architecture is often associated with items like "anti-homeless spikes" – studs embedded in flat surfaces to make sleeping on them uncomfortable and impractical. This form of architecture is most commonly found in densely populated and urban areas.[2][3] Other measures include sloped window sills to stop people sitting; benches with armrests positioned to stop people lying on them; water sprinklers that spray intermittently; and public trash bins with inconveniently small mouths to prevent the insertion of bulky wastes.[4] Hostile architecture is also employed to deter skateboarding, BMXing, inline skating, littering, loitering, public urination,[5] and trespassing, and as a form of pest control.[6]

Discover more about Hostile architecture related topics

Urban design

Urban design

Urban design is an approach to the design of buildings and the spaces between them that focuses on specific design processes and outcomes. In addition to designing and shaping the physical features of towns, cities, and regional spaces, urban design considers 'bigger picture' issues of economic, social and environmental value and social design. The scope of a project can range from a local street or public space to an entire city and surrounding areas. Urban designers connect the fields of architecture, landscape architecture and urban planning to better organize physical space and community environments.

Window sill

Window sill

A windowsill is the horizontal structure or surface at the bottom of a window. Window sills serve to structurally support and hold the window in place.

Armrest

Armrest

An armrest is a part of a chair, where a person can rest their arms on.

Waste container

Waste container

A waste container, also known as a dustbin, garbage can, and trash can is a type of container that is usually made out of metal or plastic. The words "rubbish", "basket" and "bin" are more common in British English usage; "trash" and "can" are more common in American English usage. "Garbage" may refer to food waste specifically or to municipal solid waste in general.

Skateboarding

Skateboarding

Skateboarding is an action sport originating in the United States that involves riding and performing tricks using a skateboard, as well as a recreational activity, an art form, an entertainment industry job, and a method of transportation. Skateboarding has been shaped and influenced by many skateboarders throughout the years. A 2009 report found that the skateboarding market is worth an estimated $4.8 billion in annual revenue, with 11.08 million active skateboarders in the world. In 2016, it was announced that skateboarding would be represented at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, for both male and female teams.

BMX

BMX

BMX, an abbreviation for bicycle motocross or bike motocross, is a cycle sport performed on BMX bikes, either in competitive BMX racing or freestyle BMX, or else in general street or off-road recreation.

Inline skating

Inline skating

Inline skating is a multi-disciplinary sport and can refer to a number of activities practiced using inline skates. Inline skates typically have two to five polyurethane wheels depending on the style of practice, arranged in a single line by a metal or plastic frame on the underside of a boot. The in-line design allows for greater speed and maneuverability than traditional roller skates. Following this basic design principle, inline skates can be modified to varying degrees to accommodate niche disciplines.

Loitering

Loitering

Loitering is the act of remaining in a particular public place for a prolonged amount of time without any apparent purpose.

Background

Although the term "hostile architecture" is recent, the use of civil engineering to achieve social engineering is not: antecedents include 19th century urine deflectors and urban planning in the United States designed for segregation.[7][8][9] American urban planner Robert Moses designed a stretch of Long Island Southern State Parkway with low stone bridges so that buses could not pass under them. This made it more difficult for people who relied on public transportation, mainly African Americans, to visit the beach that wealthier car-owners could visit.[10][11] Outside of the United States, public space design change for the purpose of social control also has historic precedent: the narrow streets of 19th century Paris, France were made wider for the purpose of allowing the military easier ability to quash protests.[12]

Its modern form is derived from the design philosophy Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED), which aims to prevent crime or protect property through three strategies: natural surveillance, natural access control, and territorial enforcement.[13] According to experts, exclusionary design is becoming increasingly common, not least in large cities such as Stockholm.[14][15][16]

Consistent with the widespread implementation of defensible space guidelines in the 1970s, most implementations of CPTED as of 2004 were based solely upon the theory that the proper design and effective use of the built environment could reduce crime, reduce fear of crime, and improve quality of life. Built environment implementations of CPTED seek to dissuade offenders from committing crimes by manipulating the built environment in which those crimes proceed or occur. The six main concepts according to Moffat are territoriality, surveillance, access control, image/maintenance, activity support and target hardening. Applying all of these strategies is key when trying to prevent crime in any neighborhood, crime-ridden or not.[17]

Beyond CPTED, scholarly research has also found that modern capitalist cities have a vested interest in eliminating signs of homelessness from their communal spaces, fearing that it might discourage investment from wealthier individuals and highlight the shortcomings of their economic model.[18] In England, much of their hostile architecture has been attributed to a desire by the government to combat an anti-social street scene, taking the form of begging and street drinking.[19]

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Civil engineering

Civil engineering

Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, airports, sewage systems, pipelines, structural components of buildings, and railways.

Social engineering (political science)

Social engineering (political science)

Social engineering is a top-down effort to influence particular attitudes and social behaviors on a large scale—most often undertaken by governments, but also carried out by media, academia or private groups—in order to produce desired characteristics in a target population. Social engineering can also be understood philosophically as a deterministic phenomenon where the intentions and goals of the architects of the new social construct are realized. Some social engineers use the scientific method to analyze and understand social systems in order to design the appropriate methods to achieve the desired results in the human subjects.

Urine deflector

Urine deflector

A urine deflector is a device for deflecting the stream of urine during urination. These may be part of a chamber pot, latrine or toilet intended for the purpose, or they may be deterrents, installed in the sides or corners of buildings to discourage their casual use as urinals by passers-by. They may be constructed in various ways from a variety of materials but are typically designed to have an angled surface which catches and redirects the stream.

Robert Moses

Robert Moses

Robert Moses was an American urban planner and public official who worked in the New York metropolitan area during the early to mid 20th century. Despite never being elected to any office, Moses is regarded as one of the most powerful and influential individuals in the history of New York City and New York State. The grand scale of his infrastructural projects and his philosophy of urban development influenced a generation of engineers, architects, and urban planners across the United States.

Southern State Parkway

Southern State Parkway

The Southern State Parkway is a 25.53-mile (41.09 km) limited-access highway on Long Island, New York, in the United States. The parkway begins at an interchange with the Belt and Cross Island parkways in Elmont, in Nassau County, and travels east to an interchange with the Sagtikos State Parkway in West Islip, Suffolk County, where it becomes the Heckscher State Parkway. The Southern State Parkway comprises the western portion of unsigned New York State Route 908M (NY 908M), with the Heckscher Parkway occupying the eastern section.

African Americans

African Americans

African Americans are an ethnic group consisting of Americans with partial or total ancestry from any of the black racial groups of Africa. The term "African American" generally denotes descendants of enslaved Africans who are from the United States.

Paris

Paris

Paris is the capital and most populous city of France, with an official estimated population of 2,102,650 residents as of 1 January 2023 in an area of more than 105 km², making it the fourth-most populated city in the European Union as well as the 30th most densely populated city in the world in 2022. Since the 17th century, Paris has been one of the world's major centres of finance, diplomacy, commerce, fashion, gastronomy, and science. For its leading role in the arts and sciences, as well as its early and extensive system of street lighting, in the 19th century it became known as "the City of Light". Like London, prior to the Second World War, it was also sometimes called the capital of the world.

Stockholm

Stockholm

Stockholm is the capital and largest city of Sweden as well as the largest urban area in Scandinavia. Approximately 990,000 people live in the municipality, with 1.6 million in the urban area, and 2.5 million in the metropolitan area. The city stretches across fourteen islands where Lake Mälaren flows into the Baltic Sea. Outside the city to the east, and along the coast, is the island chain of the Stockholm archipelago. The area has been settled since the Stone Age, in the 6th millennium BC, and was founded as a city in 1252 by Swedish statesman Birger Jarl. It is also the county seat of Stockholm County. For several hundred years, Stockholm was the capital of Finland as well, which was then a part of Sweden. The population of the municipality of Stockholm is expected to reach one million people in 2024.

Identifying hostile architecture

Some forms of hostile architecture are easily recognized, while others could be interpreted as either exclusionary or non-exclusionary, such as spaced-out singular chairs constructed at a playground in Sweden, which may appear intentionally designed to dissuade homeless sleeping, or as an acknowledgement that Swedes consider it impolite to sit near strangers.[20] Some researchers have said that hostile architecture should be evaluated within the wider context of the community, and should recognize the social and political forces motivating a particular design choice, such as anti-homelessness legislation or sentiments.[21]

Applications

Boulders installed along a freeway ramp in Portland, Oregon, United States as a hostile architecture to deter transient camps.
Boulders installed along a freeway ramp in Portland, Oregon, United States as a hostile architecture to deter transient camps.
The "Camden bench", used in London, has a design that is stated to discourage sleeping, littering, skateboarding, drug dealing, graffiti and theft
The "Camden bench", used in London, has a design that is stated to discourage sleeping, littering, skateboarding, drug dealing, graffiti and theft
Benches with metal pipes at a train station in Vienna.
Benches with metal pipes at a train station in Vienna.
Anti-homeless spikes in New York, designed to prevent sitting.
Anti-homeless spikes in New York, designed to prevent sitting.

Camping deterrents

In Seattle, Washington, United States, the city government installed bicycle racks to prevent homeless people from camping.[22][23]

Since 2013, the Oregon Department of Transportation in Oregon, United States deployed large boulders at eight locations that had been the site of transient camps in Portland. These boulders were installed to deter illegal camping near the freeways.[24]

Fences or grates

Fence under the stairs of the City Archives in Kungsholmen in Stockholm (2015).[25]
Fence under the stairs of the City Archives in Kungsholmen in Stockholm (2015).[25]

Fences or grates are a common form of exclusionary design, often used to prevent access to places where there is protection from the elements, for example under stairs, bridges, or near fan systems that blow out hot air.[26][27][28]

In the spring of 2015, the City of Stockholm, Sweden, erected a 200,000 kr fence to prevent homeless people from seeking shelter under a staircase in Kungsholmen.[26]

Sleeping deterrents

In many large cities, for example Tokyo and London, benches have been designed to prevent people from sleeping on them. These benches have been constructed so that the seat slopes at an angle, which requires the user to support themselves entirely with their feet; such benches are ubiquitous on bus stops across the United Kingdom.[29] Another deterrent design is to include armrests placed down the center of the bench, preventing the user from laying down across the seats.[30]

Camden Borough Council in London commissioned concrete-block benches (dubbed "Camden benches") designed to discourage uses such as sleeping, skateboarding and placing stickers.[7][31] There are other variants, in which level differences are absent but they tend to be either too short to lie on, or have iron pipes placed two-thirds of the way in, or multiple armrests placed along the entire length of the bench.[32] Such benches are common in airports.[33]

When the City Tunnel in Malmö, Sweden, was opened in 2010, the design of the benches on the new train platforms was reported to the Equality Ombudsman because the benches were tilted so much that they were difficult to impossible to use for sitting.[34][35] The Swedish state-owned real estate company Jernhusen has also used so-called "homeless-proof" benches at the train station in Luleå, with seven iron bars at 47 cm (19 in) intervals per bench.[36][37] Jernhusen's press officer maintained that they "put in the armrests primarily to make it easier for the elderly and disabled to sit and stand up" but admitted in an interview that the perceived orderliness problems at the station building influenced how the benches were designed.[36] Another example of a company that has installed such benches is Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe, Berlin's local public transport company.[38][39]

Some examples of sleeping deterrents take the form of temporary changes to buildings. An example of this occurred in a Liverpool building, previously the Bank of England headquarters, in December 2016. A blue sloping steel structure covered in oil was placed over the stairs at night, so that the homeless who used to sleep and rest on the stairs would not stay there.[40][41]

Spikes

They can occur as spikes, bumps or other types of pointed structures. They are typically placed on ledges outside buildings, under roofs or other places where people seek rest or shelter, and also around shops.[42][43][44][45] The property management company Jernhusen uses a variant by placing pipes instead of spikes in several places at Stockholm Central Station.[14][46] In 2014, images circulated on the internet of a place in London where homeless people used to sleep. The ground had been fitted with sharp upward-pointing spikes to get rid of people who used to sleep there, but after widespread protests, the anti-homeless spikes were removed.[47] There are also anti-homeless spikes which are intended to ensure that people do not, for example, sit against a house wall, or stand in a particular place.[1] It is difficult to adequately assess how many different types exist, but it is certain that there are many types of the phenomenon, including split bricks which form cracks, various forms of bent metal pipes, and plates welded upwards to form spikes.[48][49][50] Former UK Prime Minister Boris Johnson has called the spikes "stupid".[51]

Security cameras

One of the most common forms of hostile architecture takes the form of surveillance. Indeed, while security cameras do not physically prevent people from engaging in certain behaviors, they can restrict actions in public spaces through enabling remote oversight and increasing the fear of retaliation for socially taboo actions.[21] In cities like Cincinnati, there has been a noted sharp increase in the number of CCTV cameras in public spaces since the 1990s.[52]

Urination deterrent

This section is an excerpt from Urine deflector.
In a corner of the Priory Gatehouse in Great Malvern
In a corner of the Priory Gatehouse in Great Malvern
A urine deflector is a device for deflecting the stream of urine during urination. These may be part of a chamber pot, latrine or toilet intended for the purpose, or they may be deterrents, installed in the sides or corners of buildings to discourage their casual use as urinals by passers-by. They may be constructed in various ways from a variety of materials but are typically designed to have an angled surface which catches and redirects the stream.

Hostile architecture as art or embellishment

A large, sturdy flowerpot outside a building in Stockholm.
A large, sturdy flowerpot outside a building in Stockholm.

This type of exclusionary design may involve, for example, displaying a large flowerpot where homeless people previously used the pavement to sleep. Other examples that have occurred include a stone painted in rainbow colours, putting out blocking shrubbery on a sidewalk, and "fun" shaped seating.[53][54][49]

Music and noise

In Sweden, loudspeakers in Finspång have played music in order to get addicts to leave certain places. In the UK and Germany, so-called anti-loitering devices (see The Mosquito) have been installed to ensure that young people do not stay in places where they are installed.[55][56][57] The devices work by emitting a monotone sound at such a high frequency that most people after adolescence lose the ability to hear it.[58] Critics have stated that the devices constitute a violation of human rights and also comment that the phenomenon would create a "dangerous gap" between young people exposed to it and older people who can avoid it.[59][60] In Germany, classical music has been used in an attempt to keep drug users away.[61] In Berlin, a plan to use atonal music at S-Bahn stations has been withdrawn after criticism.[62]

Removal

Sometimes exclusionary design is not about adding features, but rather about taking them away. Fredrik Edin, who has written a book on exclusionary design, says that removal is the most common type of exclusionary design, where, for example, benches used by the public are removed precisely because they are used by the public.[63][64][65] One example is when representatives of the New York City Subway announced via social media in 2021 that "benches were removed from stations to prevent the homeless from sleeping on them." The agency later said the tweet was a mistake.[66][67][68] Benches at certain locations at Stockholm Central Station were removed in 2015 in favour of chairs and benches were also removed at Luleå railway station. Their press officer stated that they had problems with the station being used as a warming shelter.[37] Many public toilets have begun to be removed in the UK in places considered to be untidy.[40]

Sprinklers

Sprinklers can be found in areas where spikes are considered too permanent; this solution involves spraying water on those staying in a particular place at a particular time.[26][37][69][70][71][72] In New Zealand, Auckland City Councillor Cathy Casey described sprinklers being used by businesses in the city as "inhumane".[73]

The Strand Bookstore in New York used such a system in 2013 to deter homeless people sleeping outside the store at night.[74] Bonhams in San Francisco was criticised for an external sprinkler system that it claimed was used to clean "building and perimeter sidewalks during non-business hours intermittently over a 48-hour period", and which was also a point where homeless people gathered.[75]

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Camden bench

Camden bench

The Camden bench is a type of concrete street furniture. It was commissioned by Camden London Borough Council and installed in Camden, London, in 2012.

Kungsholmen

Kungsholmen

Kungsholmen is an island in Lake Mälaren in Sweden, part of central Stockholm, Sweden. It is situated north of Riddarfjärden and considered part of the historical province Uppland. Its area is 3.9 km2 (1.5 sq mi) with a perimeter of 8.9 km (5.5 mi). The highest point is at Stadshagsplan at 47 metres (154 ft). The total population is 71,542.

London

London

London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a 50-mile (80 km) estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a major settlement for two millennia. The City of London, its ancient core and financial centre, was founded by the Romans as Londinium and retains its medieval boundaries. The City of Westminster, to the west of the City of London, has for centuries hosted the national government and parliament. Since the 19th century, the name "London" has also referred to the metropolis around this core, historically split between the counties of Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, Kent, and Hertfordshire, which since 1965 has largely comprised Greater London, which is governed by 33 local authorities and the Greater London Authority.

Bus stop

Bus stop

A bus stop is a place where buses stop for passengers to get on and off the bus. The construction of bus stops tends to reflect the level of usage, where stops at busy locations may have shelters, seating, and possibly electronic passenger information systems; less busy stops may use a simple pole and flag to mark the location. Bus stops are, in some locations, clustered together into transport hubs allowing interchange between routes from nearby stops and with other public transport modes to maximise convenience.

Armrest

Armrest

An armrest is a part of a chair, where a person can rest their arms on.

Camden London Borough Council

Camden London Borough Council

Camden London Borough Council is the local authority for the London Borough of Camden in Greater London, England. It is a London borough council, one of 32 in the United Kingdom capital of London. Camden is divided into 18 wards, each electing three councillors.

City Tunnel (Malmö)

City Tunnel (Malmö)

The City Tunnel is a 11-kilometre rail link in Malmö, Sweden, running between Malmö Central Station and the Öresund Bridge, of which six kilometres under Malmö city centre is in a tunnel, to increase capacity on the Skåne County network by changing Malmö C from a terminus to a through station. Including necessary connections to other railways it is 17 km. It is a part of the Öresund Line to Copenhagen Central Station. The work was projected to cost 9.45 billion SEK. Construction began in March 2005, and the line was inaugurated by King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden on 4 December 2010. Revenue service commenced on 12 December 2010.

Equality Ombudsman

Equality Ombudsman

The Equality Ombudsman is a government agency in Sweden tasked with supervising the laws relating to discrimination on the basis of someone's sex, transgender identity or expression, ethnicity, religion or other belief, disability, sexual orientation or age. It was formed on 1 January 2009 from the four previously separate ombudsmen tasked with different aspects of discrimination.

Jernhusen

Jernhusen

Jernhusen AB owns and runs railway stations and other buildings attached to the railway network in Sweden. The company was formed on 1 January 2001 as part of the break-up of Statens Järnvägar, the former national railway. It remains wholly owned by the Swedish government.

Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe

Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe

The Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe is the main public transport company of Berlin, the capital city of Germany. It manages the city's U-Bahn underground railway, tram, bus, replacement services and ferry networks, but not the S-Bahn urban rail system.

Liverpool

Liverpool

Liverpool is a city and metropolitan borough in North West England. With a population of 486,100 in 2021, it is located within the county of Merseyside and is the principal city of the wider Liverpool City Region. Its metropolitan area is the fifth largest in the United Kingdom, with a population of 2.24 million.

Bank of England

Bank of England

The Bank of England is the central bank of the United Kingdom and the model on which most modern central banks have been based. Established in 1694 to act as the English Government's banker, and still one of the bankers for the Government of the United Kingdom, it is the world's eighth-oldest bank. It was privately owned by stockholders from its foundation in 1694 until it was nationalised in 1946 by the Attlee ministry.

Public reception

Opposition to hostile architecture in urban design states that such architecture makes public spaces hostile to all people and especially targets the transient and homeless populations.[76] Proponents say that clearly establishing a sense of ownership over the space helps maintain order and safety and deter crime and unwanted behaviors.[77]

In 2018, British artist Stuart Semple created a social media public awareness campaign encouraging the public to place identifying stickers on instances of hostile design in their environment.[78][79][80]

Examples of hostile architecture circulating within UK media have led to negative reception. The Joseph Rowntree Foundation warned that homelessness in London is rising significantly faster than the nationwide average. Nonetheless, types of hostile architecture have increased. For example, Selfridges in Manchester installed metal spikes outside their store for the purpose of reducing "litter and smoking," which suggests hostile architecture may be implicated for one reason but explained by another.[44]

Artistic response

  • In 2001, Nils Norman published the book The Contemporary Picturesque, which contains photographs he has taken of exclusionary design since the 1990s.[81]
  • In 2003, two Parisians, Stéphane Argillet and Gilles Paté, filmed the film Le repos du fakir (The Fakir's Rest), which shows them attempting to rest on various objects that characterize exclusionary design in Paris.[82]
  • In 2005, American artist and researcher Sarah Ross documented exclusionary design in Los Angeles in her series Tempting Resistance. Her 2006 follow-up, Archisuits, created clothing that was designed to work with exclusionary design – to make sleep possible.[83][84]
  • In 2013–2014, an installation in Norrköping, Sweden, called "Modified Social Benches" by Danish artist Jeppe Hein took place.[85][86]
  • In 2015, artist and architect Johanna Nenander drew attention to the phenomenon through her project "Urbana proteser" (lit. 'Urban prostheses'), in which she placed seating that was deliberately positioned to make it difficult to sit down on. For a few days, a pair of sheet-metal foundations on the slab, which were impossible to sit on, became a bench for the public.[87]
  • In 2018, British artist and exhibition curator Stuart Semple created a social media platform to encourage the public to place identifying stickers where they spotted exclusionary designs in public spaces.[88][89][90][80][91]

Impacts of hostile architecture

Making the built environment hostile to undesirable people, such as skateboarders or people without stable housing, also has the effect of making it hostile to elderly people, people with disabilities, tired workers, pregnant women, people caring for young children, and other desirable people.[3]

Up to this point, there has not been a wide scale empirical study that has measured the impact of hostile architecture on the wellbeing of homeless people or other targeted populations.[21] Some members of England's homeless community interviewed by researchers have noted that hostile design contributes to their displacement and feelings of insignificance, as it appears that local business interests are prioritized over their survival.[19]

Designing infrastructure to be exclusionary encourages those experiencing homelessness to seek out homeless shelters, which are comparably safer and more comfortable than general public spaces.[21]

Gallery

  • Spikes added around fountain in Government Center, Miami, in 2011 at downtown transit center

    Spikes added around fountain in Government Center, Miami, in 2011 at downtown transit center

  • Ledge with skatestoppers preventing skateboarders from grinding

    Ledge with skatestoppers preventing skateboarders from grinding

  • Spikes on a ledge in Boston to prevent sleeping or sitting

    Spikes on a ledge in Boston to prevent sleeping or sitting

  • Spiked handrail, presumably preventing users from sliding down

    Spiked handrail, presumably preventing users from sliding down

  • Floor spikes in Shoreditch, London, U.K, designed to prevent people from sleeping on the ground.

    Floor spikes in Shoreditch, London, U.K, designed to prevent people from sleeping on the ground.

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Government Center (Miami)

Government Center (Miami)

Government Center is a district in Downtown Miami, Florida. Bounded roughly by I-95 and West (NW/SW) 3rd Avenue to the west, South (SW/SE) 1st Street to the south, North (NE/NW) 5th Street to the north, and East (NE/SE) 1st Avenue to the east, Government Center is located on the western edge of downtown. The area includes several courthouses, including the historic Miami-Dade County Courthouse and a US district court, the City of Miami police headquarters, city, county, and state offices. The eponymous and most used county transit station, Government Center, serving Metrorail, Metromover, and Metrobus, is located in the bottom of the Stephen P. Clark Government Center building. Directly south of this is the main branch of the Miami-Dade Public Library System, as well as the HistoryMiami museum. Henry Flagler's Florida East Coast Railroad owns roughly nine acres in the middle of Government Center, the site of its former Miami station, which spans several blocks. While the station was destroyed in 1963 and the site had been used as surface parking lots in the decades following, the railroad never gave up ownership of the property. In mid 2014, the lots were closed down for construction of the MiamiCentral intercity rail station, as part of the Brightline system.

Miami

Miami

Miami, officially the City of Miami, is a coastal metropolis and the seat of Miami-Dade County in South Florida. With a population of 442,241 as of the 2020 census, it is the second-most populous city in the state of Florida after Jacksonville. It is the core of the much larger Miami metropolitan area, which, with a population of 6.138 million, is the third-largest metro in the Southeast and ninth-largest in the United States. The city has the third largest skyline in the U.S. with over 300 high-rises, 58 of which exceed 491 ft (150 m).

Skatestopper

Skatestopper

Skatestoppers are skate-deterrent or anti-skate devices placed on urban terrain features such as benches and handrails to discourage skateboarders grinding on the surfaces where they have been installed; they are a form of hostile architecture.

Grind (skateboarding)

Grind (skateboarding)

In skateboarding, grinds are tricks that involve the skateboarder sliding along a surface, making contact with the trucks of the skateboard. Grinds can be performed on any object narrow enough to fit between wheels and are performed on curbs, rails, the coping of a skate ramp, funboxes, ledges, and a variety of other surfaces.

Boston

Boston

Boston, officially the City of Boston, is the capital and largest city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and the cultural and financial center of the New England region of the Northeastern United States. The city boundaries encompass an area of about 48.4 sq mi (125 km2) and a population of 675,647 as of 2020. The city is the economic and cultural anchor of a substantially larger metropolitan area known as Greater Boston, a metropolitan statistical area (MSA) home to a census-estimated 4.8 million people in 2016 and ranking as the tenth-largest MSA in the country. A broader combined statistical area (CSA), generally corresponding to the commuting area and including Worcester, Massachusetts and Providence, Rhode Island, is home to approximately 8.2 million people, making it the sixth most populous in the United States.

Source: "Hostile architecture", Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, (2023, March 17th), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hostile_architecture.

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Further Reading

Täby Municipality

Fredrik Reinfeldt

Liberal Youth of Sweden

Stockholm Mosque

Nautical Chart Department (Sweden)

Isak Gustaf Clason

Discrimination against homeless people

Anti-homelessness legislation

Fredrik Ljungström

Metropia (film)

Skatestopper

Adolf Fredrik's Music School

Camden bench

Swedish Centre for Architecture and Design

List of sovereign states by homeless population
See also
References
  1. ^ a b Chellew, Cara (2019). "Defending Suburbia: Exploring the use of defensive urban design outside of the city centre". Canadian Journal of Urban Research. 28: 19–33. Archived from the original on 2019-07-22. Retrieved 2019-07-22.
  2. ^ Omidi, Maryam (12 June 2014). "Anti-homeless spikes are just the latest in 'defensive urban architecture'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 31 May 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2015.
  3. ^ a b Andreou, Alex (18 February 2015). "Anti-homeless spikes: 'Sleeping rough opened my eyes to the city's barbed cruelty'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 19 April 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2015.
  4. ^ Quinn, Ben (13 June 2014). "Anti-homeless spikes are part of a wider phenomenon of 'hostile architecture'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 7 May 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2015.
  5. ^ Morris, Hugh (2016-02-04). "Anti-pee paint: San Francisco's walls fight back". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 2022-08-22.
  6. ^ Andrea Lo. "The debate: Is hostile architecture designing people -- and nature -- out of cities?". CNN. Retrieved 2022-08-16.
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