Get Our Extension

Hill farming

From Wikipedia, in a visual modern way
An example of hill farming countryside in the UK
An example of hill farming countryside in the UK

Hill farming or terrace farming is an extensive farming in upland areas, primarily rearing sheep, although historically cattle were often reared extensively in upland areas. Fell farming is the farming of fells, a fell being an area of uncultivated high ground used as common grazing. It is a term commonly used in Northern England, especially in the Lake District and the Pennine Dales. Elsewhere, the terms hill farming or pastoral farming are more commonly used.

Cattle farming in the hills is usually restricted by a scarcity of winter fodder, and hill sheep, grazing at about two hectares per head, are often taken to lowland areas for fattening.

Modern hill farming is often heavily dependent on state subsidy, for example in the United Kingdom it received support from the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy. Improved, sown pasture and drained moorland can be stocked more heavily, at approximately one sheep per 0.26 hectares.

Discover more about Hill farming related topics

Extensive farming

Extensive farming

Extensive farming or extensive agriculture is an agricultural production system that uses small inputs of labour, fertilizers, and capital, relative to the land area being farmed.

Fell

Fell

A fell is a high and barren landscape feature, such as a mountain or moor-covered hill. The term is most often employed in Fennoscandia, Iceland, the Isle of Man, parts of northern England, and Scotland.

Grazing

Grazing

In agriculture, grazing is a method of animal husbandry whereby domestic livestock are allowed outdoors to roam around and consume wild vegetations in order to convert the otherwise indigestible cellulose within grass and other forages into meat, milk, wool and other animal products, often on land unsuitable for arable farming.

Northern England

Northern England

Northern England, also known as the North of England, the North Country, or simply the North, is the northern area of England. It broadly corresponds to the former borders of Angle Northumbria, the Anglo-Scandinavian Kingdom of Jorvik, and the Celt Britonic Yr Hen Ogledd Kingdoms.

Lake District

Lake District

The Lake District, also known as the Lakes or Lakeland, is a mountainous region in North West England. A popular holiday destination, it is famous for its lakes, forests, and mountains, and its associations with William Wordsworth and other Lake Poets and also with Beatrix Potter and John Ruskin. The Lake District National Park was established in 1951 and covers an area of 2,362 square kilometres (912 sq mi). It was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2017.

Pastoral farming

Pastoral farming

Pastoral farming is aimed at producing livestock, rather than growing crops. Examples include dairy farming, raising beef cattle, and raising sheep for wool. In contrast, arable farming concentrates on crops rather than livestock. Finally, mixed farming incorporates livestock and crops on a single farm. Some mixed farmers grow crops purely as fodder for their livestock; some crop farmers grow fodder and sell it. In some cases pastoral farmers are known as graziers, and in some cases pastoralists. Pastoral farming is a non-nomadic form of pastoralism in which the livestock farmer has some form of ownership of the land used, giving the farmer more economic incentive to improve the land. Unlike other pastoral systems, pastoral farmers are sedentary and do not change locations in search of fresh resources. Rather, pastoral farmers adjust their pastures to fit the needs of their animals. Improvements include drainage, stock tanks, irrigation and sowing clover.

Fodder

Fodder

Fodder, also called provender, is any agricultural foodstuff used specifically to feed domesticated livestock, such as cattle, rabbits, sheep, horses, chickens and pigs. "Fodder" refers particularly to food given to the animals, rather than that which they forage for themselves. Fodder includes hay, straw, silage, compressed and pelleted feeds, oils and mixed rations, and sprouted grains and legumes. Most animal feed is from plants, but some manufacturers add ingredients to processed feeds that are of animal origin.

Hectare

Hectare

The hectare is a non-SI metric unit of area equal to a square with 100-metre sides (1 hm2), or 10,000 m2, and is primarily used in the measurement of land. There are 100 hectares in one square kilometre. An acre is about 0.405 hectares and one hectare contains about 2.47 acres.

European Union

European Union

The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of 27 member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of 4,233,255.3 km2 (1,634,469.0 sq mi) and an estimated total population of nearly 447 million. The EU has often been described as a sui generis political entity combining the characteristics of both a federation and a confederation.

Common Agricultural Policy

Common Agricultural Policy

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is the agricultural policy of the European Union. It implements a system of agricultural subsidies and other programmes. It was introduced in 1962 and has since then underwent several changes to reduce the EEC budget cost and consider rural development in its aims. It has however, been criticised on the grounds of its cost, its environmental, and humanitarian effects.

Pasture

Pasture

Pasture is land used for grazing. Pasture lands in the narrow sense are enclosed tracts of farmland, grazed by domesticated livestock, such as horses, cattle, sheep, or swine. The vegetation of tended pasture, forage, consists mainly of grasses, with an interspersion of legumes and other forbs. Pasture is typically grazed throughout the summer, in contrast to meadow which is ungrazed or used for grazing only after being mown to make hay for animal fodder. Pasture in a wider sense additionally includes rangelands, other unenclosed pastoral systems, and land types used by wild animals for grazing or browsing.

Moorland

Moorland

Moorland or moor is a type of habitat found in upland areas in temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands and montane grasslands and shrublands biomes, characterised by low-growing vegetation on acidic soils. Moorland, nowadays, generally means uncultivated hill land, but also includes low-lying wetlands. It is closely related to heath, although experts disagree on what precisely distinguishes these types of vegetation. Generally, moor refers to highland and high rainfall zones, whereas heath refers to lowland zones which are more likely to be the result of human activity. Moorland habitats mostly occur in tropical Africa, northern and western Europe, and neotropical South America. Most of the world's moorlands are diverse ecosystems. In the extensive moorlands of the tropics, biodiversity can be extremely high. Moorland also bears a relationship to tundra, appearing as the tundra and the natural tree zone. The boundary between tundra and moorland constantly shifts with climatic change.

Location and organization

Relief map of the United Kingdom
Relief map of the United Kingdom

Hill farming is a type of agricultural practice in the UK in upland regions. In England, hill farms are located mainly in the North and South-Western regions, as well as a few areas bordering Wales.[1] The Scottish highlands are another home for many hill farms. Sheep farms and mixed sheep and cattle farms constitute approximately 55% of the agricultural land in Scotland. These areas have a harsh climate, short growing seasons, relatively poor quality of soil and long winters. Therefore, these areas are considered to be disadvantaged and the animals raised there are generally less productive and farmers will often send them down to the lowlands to be fattened up.[2]

Upland areas are not traditionally favourable for agricultural practices. The majority of Hill farming land in England is classified as Less Favoured Area (LFA), and the LFA constitutes 17% of land farmed in England.[3] The LFA is further divided into Severely Disadvantaged Areas (SDAs) and Disadvantaged Areas (DAs), which make up 67% and 33% of the LFA respectively.[3] These areas are classified as such on account of poor climate, soils, and terrain which cause higher costs in production and transportation as well as lower yields and less productivity.[3] The LFA is significant in England's farming on a whole despite these disadvantages: 30% of beef cows and 44% of breeding sheep come from LFAs.[3] Farming distinctively shapes the ecosystems of these zones,[3] and the agriculture practices in the uplands define and shape the environment and landscape.[1]

Upland areas are usually covered with both dry and wet dwarf shrub heath and, rough and either managed or unmanaged improved grasslands.[1] The typical hill farm is made up of three distinct zones: the High fell, the Alotment, and the Inbye.[4] The High fell includes peat moors and rocky areas which provide poor grazing at the top.[4] The Alotment follows below, an enclosed area with rough grazing.[4] The Inbye is the lowest area at the bottom, which is used as the regular grazing area as well as for growing hay.[4]

Discover more about Location and organization related topics

United Kingdom

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. The United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland, and many smaller islands within the British Isles. Northern Ireland shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland; otherwise, the United Kingdom is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel, the Celtic Sea and the Irish Sea. The total area of the United Kingdom is 242,495 square kilometres (93,628 sq mi), with an estimated 2023 population of over 68 million people.

England

England

England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea area of the Atlantic Ocean to the southwest. It is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south. The country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain, which lies in the North Atlantic, and includes over 100 smaller islands, such as the Isles of Scilly and the Isle of Wight.

Wales

Wales

Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, the Celtic Sea to the south west and the Bristol Channel to the south. It had a population in 2021 of 3,107,500 and has a total area of 20,779 km2 (8,023 sq mi). Wales has over 1,680 miles (2,700 km) of coastline and is largely mountainous with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon, its highest summit. The country lies within the north temperate zone and has a changeable, maritime climate. The capital and largest city is Cardiff.

Scotland

Scotland

Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Covering the northern third of the island of Great Britain, mainland Scotland has a 96-mile (154-kilometre) border with England to the southeast and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, the North Sea to the northeast and east, and the Irish Sea to the south. It also contains more than 790 islands, principally in the archipelagos of the Hebrides and the Northern Isles. Most of the population, including the capital Edinburgh, is concentrated in the Central Belt—the plain between the Scottish Highlands and the Southern Uplands—in the Scottish Lowlands.

Heath

Heath

A heath is a shrubland habitat found mainly on free-draining infertile, acidic soils and characterised by open, low-growing woody vegetation. Moorland is generally related to high-ground heaths with—especially in Great Britain—a cooler and damper climate.

Moors

Moors

The term Moor, derived from the ancient Mauri, is an exonym first used by Christian Europeans to designate the Muslim inhabitants of the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Sicily and Malta during the Middle Ages.

History

Dartmoor National Park has over 10,000ha of prehistoric field systems, dating back to 1500BC.[5] Archaeological evidence shows that these moors have been grazed for 3500 years.[5] Because of the extent of historical farming in the UK uplands, hill farming has shaped the English uplands both environmentally and culturally.[1]

The UK government has designated different areas in the upland as specifically valuable by certain terms of the environment, biodiversity, archaeology, cultural heritage and landscape, and seeks to protect these regions for such reasons.[1] According to the UK government, these designated areas and their qualifications as such are:

  • National parks
    • "These protect and conserve the character of landscapes, facilities for access, wildlife habitats and historic features"
  • Areas of outstanding natural beauty
    • "These conserve and enhance naturally beautiful landscapes"
  • Countryside character areas
    • "Areas of cultural heritage which should be preserved"
  • Natural England natural areas
    • "Each area has a unique identity created by its mix of natural features and human activities and provides a broad context for local nature conservation work"
  • Common land
    • "Areas where people who do not own the land have rights to use it for farming or other purposes"
  • National nature reserves
    • "These protect and provide public access to important wildlife and geological sites"
  • Special areas of conservation
    • "These protect various wild animals, plants and habitats under the European Union’s Habitats Directive"
  • Special protection areas
    • "These protect rare and vulnerable birds and migratory species as well as geological and physiographical heritage"
  • Upland experiment areas
    • "Two upland areas where Natural England/Defra predecessor bodies piloted an integrated approach to rural development and nature conservation between 1999 and 2001"
  • Ancient woodland
    • "Land that has had continuous tree cover since at least 1600"[1]

Over the past century, Hill farming and the upland environment have undergone a number of changes. Since 1900 there has been:

  • An approximately 500% increase in the number of sheep livestock.[6]
  • A decrease in medium-sized farms, due to increase in large farms businesses and the emergence of small-scale hobby farmers.[6]
  • Increased specialization in livestock and a movement away from tradition mixed farming methods.[6]
  • Fairly consistent labour employment on account of constant agricultural intensification offsetting reductions in labour output made possible by technological advancements.[6]
  • A high turnover rates in upland ecosystem habitat types. For example, although the percentage of land classified as dwarf shrub moor remained relatively stable between 1913 and 2000, only 55% of the dwarf moor shrub land in 1913 occupied the same area as it does in 2000.[6]

Discover more about History related topics

Uplands ecosystems

The Dartmoor sheep is a type of livestock found on hill farms.
The Dartmoor sheep is a type of livestock found on hill farms.

A large number of upland ecosystems have been shaped by humans for centuries, particularly by farming and agriculture.[6] Because of this, many upland ecosystems have become dependent on hill farm land management.[6] Hill farming practices play a significant role in supporting surrounding flora and fauna in the uplands. Through grazing, sheep and cattle maintain a variety of tall grasses and short vegetation.[2] This in turn supports local wildlife, as the short vegetation provides breeding and nesting grounds for many species of waders, including the lapwing, redshank, and golden plover.[2] The taller grasses are an important part of the Curlew habitat, which is another species of wader.[2] Cattle dung provides nutrition for many species of insects and carrion provides food for various species of scavenging birds.[2]

During winter farmers will usually keep the animals indoors, supplementing the livestock's diet with hay or silage.[2] The land used to grow winter feed that are not mowed are able to provide protection for a variety of birds including skylarks, partridge, and corncrakes who build on their nests on the ground.[2] Agricultural use, burning, and grazing by both livestock and wild life such as deer, helps to sustain the upland grasslands, moorland and bogs.[2] If these ecosystems were not maintained they would be colonized by trees and scrub.[2]

Sustainable careful maintenance is highly important in hill farming in order to protect the delicate relationship that farm manage has on the biodiversity of native plant and animal species.[1]

A Grey Faced Dartmoor sheep
A Grey Faced Dartmoor sheep

Upland ecosystems have seen a shift in the last century, associated with widespread habitat deterioration caused by human actions and exploitation.[6] The decline in grazing animals accompanied with the milder winters experienced in recent years has caused an overgrowth in vegetation, putting the ecosystem, as well as various archaeological sites at risk. The Dartmoor Vision initiative is trying to return Dartmoor to its former predominantly cattle, sheep, and pony grazed landscape.[5]

Discover more about Uplands ecosystems related topics

Sheep

Sheep

Sheep or domestic sheep are domesticated, ruminant mammals typically kept as livestock. Although the term sheep can apply to other species in the genus Ovis, in everyday usage it almost always refers to domesticated sheep. Like all ruminants, sheep are members of the order Artiodactyla, the even-toed ungulates. Numbering a little over one billion, domestic sheep are also the most numerous species of sheep. An adult female is referred to as a ewe, an intact male as a ram, occasionally a tup, a castrated male as a wether, and a young sheep as a lamb.

Agriculture

Agriculture

Agriculture encompasses crop and livestock production, aquaculture, fisheries and forestry for food and non-food products. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to live in cities. While humans started gathering grains at least 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers only began planting them around 11,500 years ago. Sheep, goats, pigs and cattle were domesticated around 10,000 years ago. Plants were independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world. In the twentieth century, industrial agriculture based on large-scale monocultures came to dominate agricultural output.

Cattle

Cattle

Cattle are large, domesticated, cloven-hooved, herbivores. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus Bos. Adult females are referred to as cows and adult males are referred to as bulls.

Feces

Feces

Feces, known colloquially and in slang as poo, caca, scat and poop, are the solid or semi-solid remains of food that was not digested in the small intestine, and has been broken down by bacteria in the large intestine. Feces contain a relatively small amount of metabolic waste products such as bacterially altered bilirubin, and dead epithelial cells from the lining of the gut.

Hay

Hay

Hay is grass, legumes, or other herbaceous plants that have been cut and dried to be stored for use as animal fodder, either for large grazing animals raised as livestock, such as cattle, horses, goats, and sheep, or for smaller domesticated animals such as rabbits and guinea pigs. Pigs can eat hay, but do not digest it as efficiently as herbivores do.

Partridge

Partridge

A partridge is a medium-sized galliform bird in any of several genera, with a wide native distribution throughout parts of Europe, Asia and Africa. Several species have been introduced to the Americas. They are sometimes grouped in the Perdicinae subfamily of the Phasianidae. However, molecular research suggests that partridges are not a distinct taxon within the family Phasianidae, but that some species are closer to the pheasants, while others are closer to the junglefowl.

Dartmoor

Dartmoor

Dartmoor is an upland area in southern Devon, England. The moorland and surrounding land has been protected by National Park status since 1951. Dartmoor National Park covers 954 km2 (368 sq mi).

Government support and subsidies

Hill farm incomes in the UK have recently seen great decrease following drops in lamb and beef prices.[6] Therefore, subsidy support has become vital for Hill farm survival, and the policies have been changing in response to continuous uncertainty in the sector.[6]

Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)

Hill farming has been supported by both the British government and EU policies, one of the most influential EU scheme being The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP).[7] The CAP provided production-based direct (headage) which gave incentive to stock beef cattle and sheep at high densities.[7] This led to, in some circumstances, overgrazing which damages natural and semi-natural vegetation.[7] Because of overgrazing and issues with the accumulation of surpluses, the CAP was reformed.[7] The two most recent reforms to the CAP were Agenda 2000 in 1999 and the Mid Term Review of June 2003 and April 2004.[7] These changes are phasing out support and protections linked to production, and are providing more support on environmental and rural developments.[7]

Single Farm Payment

The Single Farm Payment replaced the older headage payments (CAP) in 2005.[6] Analyses of the effects of economic incentives provided to hill farmers by decoupling and the introduction of the Single Farm Payment show that although these policies cause little change in average farm incomes they do encourage change in the way hill farms run.[6] Specifically the policies promote the reduction of stocking densities, reduction of employment of additional farm labour, movement away from reliance on beef cattle, increased specialization, and to keep farming land in “good agricultural condition” rather than farm abandonment.[6] The EU plans to phase out and progressively reduce the SFP, and the SFP is guaranteed until 2013.[7]

Other policies

Other subsidy schemes from the British government are available to hill farmers, particularly the Uplands Entry Level Stewardship (Uplands ELS)[1] and agri-environment schemes.[6] The Uplands ELS replaced the prior Hill Farm Allowance in 2010.[3] Before the HFA, hill farms we subsidized by the Hill Livestock Compensatory Allowances which were active as headage support to eligible beef cows and ewes.[3] Because the DAs are more profitable than the SDAs, active since 2008 DAs became ineligible for funding from the Hill Farming Allowance (HFA).[3]

In addition to the Upland ELS, hill farmers in England's SDAs are supported by the Single Payment Scheme (SPS), which is the primary agricultural subsidy scheme under the EU.[1] Subsidies from the SPS are not dependent on production, granting greater freedom to farmers to meet market demands.[1] The SPS also claims to specifically support hill farmers who follow environmentally friendly farming practices.[1]

In order to receive these subsidies, hill farmers must meet cross compliance rules and regulations, which mainly involves avoidance of overgrazing and unsuitable supplementary feeding on natural and semi-natural vegetation under GAEC (standard of good agricultural and environmental condition).[1] These standards were implemented to protect significant habitats and to limit soil erosion and other negative effects of soil structure in the uplands.[1]

Certain upland farmers and communities also have access to funding from the Rural Development Programme for England (RDPE) team at Defra.[1] The reduction of farming subsidies that have taken place over the past few decades has created an uncertain future for farming in many parts of Europe.[7]

Discover more about Government support and subsidies related topics

Lamb and mutton

Lamb and mutton

Lamb, hogget, and mutton, generically sheep meat, are the meat of domestic sheep, Ovis aries. A sheep in its first year is a lamb and its meat is also lamb. The meat from sheep in their second year is hogget. Older sheep meat is mutton. Generally, "hogget" and "sheep meat" are not used by consumers outside Norway, New Zealand, South Africa, Scotland, and Australia. Hogget has become more common in England, particularly in the North often in association with rare breed and organic farming.

Beef

Beef

Beef is the culinary name for meat from cattle.

European Union

European Union

The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of 27 member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of 4,233,255.3 km2 (1,634,469.0 sq mi) and an estimated total population of nearly 447 million. The EU has often been described as a sui generis political entity combining the characteristics of both a federation and a confederation.

Overgrazing

Overgrazing

Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended periods of time, or without sufficient recovery periods. It can be caused by either livestock in poorly managed agricultural applications, game reserves, or nature reserves. It can also be caused by immobile, travel restricted populations of native or non-native wild animals.

Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs

Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs

The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) is a department of His Majesty's Government responsible for environmental protection, food production and standards, agriculture, fisheries and rural communities in the United Kingdom. Concordats set out agreed frameworks for co operation, between it and the Scottish Government, Welsh Government and Northern Ireland Executive, which have devolved responsibilities for these matters in their respective nations.

Europe

Europe

Europe is a continent comprising the westernmost peninsulas of Eurasia, located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with both Africa and Asia. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east. Europe is commonly considered to be separated from Asia by the watershed of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Greater Caucasus, the Black Sea and the waterways of the Turkish Straits.

Recent strain on hill farming

Hill farming countryside by the Arkland Burn
Hill farming countryside by the Arkland Burn

Without government subsidies, many hill farms would have a negative income.[8] The high cost of land and machinery keeps many hill farmers from expanding.[8] Hill farmers in some parts of England have reported a 75% decrease in income over the past decade.[8]

Hill farmer income is subject to large fluctuation above the influence of the farmers.[9] The harsh terrain and climate of hill farms are hard on the animals, causing them to be relatively very unproductive.[4] Because of this, hill farming can have economic strains on the farmers who generally have low income.[4] Wet weather, as often experienced in the uplands, create additional animal feed costs for farmers.[9]

Many hill farmers earn around £12,600, with some earning as little as £8,000. This is much below the annual £19,820 a single working adult requires to live in a village in England.[9] In 2008, a farmer would receive a profit of £1 for a single moorland lamb.[5] The average LFA farm in England only earns about 66% of their total revenue from farming.[3] 22% of this revenue comes from the Single Farm Payment, and 10% from specific agri-environment payments.[3] The 2% balance originated from non-farm activities, which are usually associated with contracting or tourism and recreation.[3]

Hill farmers in Peak District National Park (PDNP) constitute one of UK's most deprived farming communities, with farms in the LFA making an average loss of £16,000 per farm, generating an average headline Farm Business Income of £10,800 (supplemented by various government subsidies), creating a net income average per farm of about £6000.[7]

The hill farming sector in southwest England, like farming in the rest of the country, has experienced a decade of much change associated with economic pressures and uncertainties.[10] On average, the financial position of hill farms in South West England, like the rest of the country, is precarious. The average southwest English hill farm system in unable to match labour and capital invest in the business.[10]

Many farmers rely on a Single Farm Payment as a source of income.[9] These payments are expected to arrive in November or December, but sometimes farmers do not receive the money until June.[9] Due to this farmers are often unable to pay their bills or fix their machinery.[9] Some farmers have to cut back on the feed given to their animals, leading to a decrease in meat production and therefore lower profit.[9] By 2012 the Single Payment Scheme (or SPS), will only take into consideration the area of the farm.[5] This will decrease the income in moorland farmers to only 70% of what it was 20 years ago.[5]

The income from calves and lambs has remained constant, while the costs of farm upkeep have risen sharply (including items such as feed, straw, fuel, or fertilizer).[5] Because hill farming is becoming increasingly less profitable an increasing number of farmers have switched from the traditional hearty but less profitable animals which graze the moors to mainstream more profitable animals.[5]

Opportunities for farmers to supplement their farm income by working in industries such as quarrying or mining are largely no longer available.[5] The financial burden has taken a toll on many hill farmers, causing them to exhibit signs of mental health issues.[9] Many hill farmers are forced to generate supplemental income outside their farms or to take out loans.[9] Because of these economic factors, there is little incentive for younger generations to continue on with the hill farming.[5]

Discover more about Recent strain on hill farming related topics

Moorland

Moorland

Moorland or moor is a type of habitat found in upland areas in temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands and montane grasslands and shrublands biomes, characterised by low-growing vegetation on acidic soils. Moorland, nowadays, generally means uncultivated hill land, but also includes low-lying wetlands. It is closely related to heath, although experts disagree on what precisely distinguishes these types of vegetation. Generally, moor refers to highland and high rainfall zones, whereas heath refers to lowland zones which are more likely to be the result of human activity. Moorland habitats mostly occur in tropical Africa, northern and western Europe, and neotropical South America. Most of the world's moorlands are diverse ecosystems. In the extensive moorlands of the tropics, biodiversity can be extremely high. Moorland also bears a relationship to tundra, appearing as the tundra and the natural tree zone. The boundary between tundra and moorland constantly shifts with climatic change.

Calf (animal)

Calf (animal)

A calf is a young domestic cow or bull. Calves are reared to become adult cattle or are slaughtered for their meat, called veal, and hide.

Sheep

Sheep

Sheep or domestic sheep are domesticated, ruminant mammals typically kept as livestock. Although the term sheep can apply to other species in the genus Ovis, in everyday usage it almost always refers to domesticated sheep. Like all ruminants, sheep are members of the order Artiodactyla, the even-toed ungulates. Numbering a little over one billion, domestic sheep are also the most numerous species of sheep. An adult female is referred to as a ewe, an intact male as a ram, occasionally a tup, a castrated male as a wether, and a young sheep as a lamb.

Fertilizer

Fertilizer

A fertilizer or fertiliser is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply plant nutrients. Fertilizers may be distinct from liming materials or other non-nutrient soil amendments. Many sources of fertilizer exist, both natural and industrially produced. For most modern agricultural practices, fertilization focuses on three main macro nutrients: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) with occasional addition of supplements like rock flour for micronutrients. Farmers apply these fertilizers in a variety of ways: through dry or pelletized or liquid application processes, using large agricultural equipment or hand-tool methods.

Problems

As discussed in an article on the Carnegie UK Trust Rural Community Development Programme site:[11]

The Foot and Mouth outbreak in Cumbria in 2001 led to the culling of over a million sheep. It also showed that the hill (fell) farming communities were as vulnerable as the pastoral system they have created over many generations.

Source: "Hill farming", Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, (2023, February 17th), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_farming.

Enjoying Wikiz?

Enjoying Wikiz?

Get our FREE extension now!

See also
References
Specific
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Hill farming - Detailed guidance - GOV.UK
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i Hill farming – Scottish Natural Heritage
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2012-11-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  4. ^ a b c d e f BBC - Standard Grade Bitesize Geography - Hill farming : Revision
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-09-04. Retrieved 2012-11-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Armsworth 2009
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i "UK Data Service" (PDF).
  8. ^ a b c Hard Times: A research report into hill farming and farming families in the Peak District
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i UTASS and Rose Regeneration for Oxfam. "Challenges Facing Farmers: A report into upland farming and farming families in Teesdale".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  10. ^ a b "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-06-10. Retrieved 2012-11-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  11. ^ "Rural Community Development Programme - Media Clips". Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2014-02-25.
General
  • Natural England, September 10, 2012. [1] Hill Farming Retrieved on October 31, 2012
  • Harvey, D., Scott, C. February, 2012. [2] Farm Business Survey 2010/2011 Hill Farming in England. Retrieved on October 31, 2012.
  • BBC. [3] Bite Size Geography: Hill Farming. Retrieved on October 31, 2012.
  • Dartmoor Vision Group, April 2008. [4] Moor Farming Delivering the Dartmoor Vision. Retrieved on October 31, 2012.
  • Armsworth, Paul et al. (2009). A Landscape-Scale Analysis of the Sustainability of the Hill Farming Economy and Impact of Farm Production Decisions on Upland Landscapes and Biodiversity: Full Research Report ESRC End of Award Report, RES-227-25-0028. Swindon: ESRC
  • Scottish Natural Heritage, September 6, 2012. [5] Hill Farming Retrieved on October 31, 2012.
  • UK Data Archive, 2007–2008. [6] Study Number 6363: Sustainability of Hill Farming. Retrieved October 31, 2012.
  • UTASS and Rose Regeneration for Oxfam, 2012. [7] Challenges Facing Farmers. Retrieved on October 31, 2012.
  • Turner, M., Robbins, K., Silcock, P., June 20, 2008. [8] Hill Farming in South West England: Economic Viability and the Delivery of Public Goods. Retrieved on October 31, 2012
  • Peak District Rural Deprivation Forum, 2004. [9] Hard Times. Retrieved on October 31, 2012.

The content of this page is based on the Wikipedia article written by contributors..
The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike Licence & the media files are available under their respective licenses; additional terms may apply.
By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use & Privacy Policy.
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization & is not affiliated to WikiZ.com.