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Higher education accreditation in the United States

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Higher education accreditation in the United States is a peer review process by which the validity of degrees and credits awarded by higher education institutions is assured. It is coordinated by accreditation commissions made up of member institutions. It was first undertaken in the late 19th century by cooperating educational institutions, on a regional basis.

The federal government began to play a limited role in higher education accreditation in 1952 with reauthorization of the G.I. Bill for Korean War veterans. The original GI Bill legislation had stimulated establishment of new colleges and universities to accommodate the influx of new students; but some of these new institutions were of dubious quality. The 1952 legislation designated the existing peer review process as the basis for measuring institutional quality; GI Bill eligibility was limited to students enrolled at accredited institutions included on a list of federally recognized accredited institutions published by the U.S. Commissioner of Education.[1]

The U.S. Department of Education and the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) (a non-governmental organization) both recognize reputable accrediting bodies for institutions of higher education and provide guidelines as well as resources and relevant data regarding these accreditors. Neither the U.S. Department of Education nor CHEA accredit individual institutions.[2] With the creation of the U.S. Department of Education and under the terms of the Higher Education Act of 1965, as amended, the U.S. Secretary of Education is required by law to publish a list of nationally recognized accrediting agencies that the secretary has determined to be reliable authorities on the quality of education or training provided by the institutions of higher education and the higher education programs they accredit.[3]

Professional schools, which are often graduate schools, have separate organizations for accreditation.

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Peer review

Peer review

Peer review is the evaluation of work by one or more people with similar competencies as the producers of the work. It functions as a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant field. Peer review methods are used to maintain quality standards, improve performance, and provide credibility. In academia, scholarly peer review is often used to determine an academic paper's suitability for publication. Peer review can be categorized by the type of activity and by the field or profession in which the activity occurs, e.g., medical peer review. It can also be used as a teaching tool to help students improve writing assignments.

Quality assurance

Quality assurance

Quality assurance (QA) is the term used in both manufacturing and service industries to describe the systematic efforts taken to ensure that the product(s) delivered to customer(s) meet with the contractual and other agreed upon performance, design, reliability, and maintainability expectations of that customer. The core purpose of Quality Assurance is to prevent mistakes and defects in the development and production of both manufactured products, such as automobiles and shoes, and delivered services, such as automotive repair and athletic shoe design. Assuring quality and therefore avoiding problems and delays when delivering products or services to customers is what ISO 9000 defines as that "part of quality management focused on providing confidence that quality requirements will be fulfilled". This defect prevention aspect of quality assurance differs from the defect detection aspect of quality control and has been referred to as a shift left since it focuses on quality efforts earlier in product development and production and on avoiding defects in the first place rather than correcting them after the fact.

Higher education accreditation

Higher education accreditation

Higher education accreditation is a type of quality assurance process under which services and operations of post-secondary educational institutions or programs are evaluated to determine if applicable standards are met. If standards are met, accredited status is granted by the agency.

G.I. Bill

G.I. Bill

The G.I. Bill, formally known as the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, was a law that provided a range of benefits for some of the returning World War II veterans. The original G.I. Bill expired in 1956, but the term "G.I. Bill" is still used to refer to programs created to assist some of the U.S. military veterans.

Korean War

Korean War

The Korean War was fought between North Korea and South Korea from 1950 to 1953. The war began on 25 June 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea following clashes along the border and rebellions in South Korea. North Korea was supported by China and the Soviet Union while South Korea was supported by the United States and allied countries. The fighting ended with an armistice on 27 July 1953.

Council for Higher Education Accreditation

Council for Higher Education Accreditation

The Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) is a United States organization of degree-granting colleges and universities. It identifies its purpose as providing national advocacy for academic quality through accreditation in order to certify the quality of higher education accrediting organizations, including regional, faith-based, private, career, and programmatic accrediting organizations.

Non-governmental organization

Non-governmental organization

A non-governmental organization (NGO) or non-governmental organisation is an organization that generally is formed independent from government. They are typically nonprofit entities, and many of them are active in humanitarianism or the social sciences; they can also include clubs and associations that provide services to their members and others. Surveys indicate that NGOs have a high degree of public trust, which can make them a useful proxy for the concerns of society and stakeholders. However, NGOs can also be lobby groups for corporations, such as the World Economic Forum. NGOs are distinguished from international and intergovernmental organizations (IOs) in that the latter are more directly involved with sovereign states and their governments.

Higher education

Higher education

Higher education is tertiary education leading to the award of an academic degree. Higher education, also called post-secondary education, third-level or tertiary education, is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after completion of secondary education. It represents levels 5, 6, 7, and 8 of the 2011 version of the International Standard Classification of Education structure. Tertiary education at a non-degree level is sometimes referred to as further education or continuing education as distinct from higher education.

Higher Education Act of 1965

Higher Education Act of 1965

The Higher Education Act of 1965 (HEA) was legislation signed into United States law on November 8, 1965, as part of President Lyndon Johnson's Great Society domestic agenda. Johnson chose Texas State University, his alma mater, as the signing site. The law was intended "to strengthen the educational resources of our colleges and universities and to provide financial assistance for students in postsecondary and higher education". It increased federal money given to universities, created scholarships, gave low-interest loans for students, and established a National Teachers Corps. The "financial assistance for students" is covered in Title IV of the HEA.

Institutional accreditation

Institutional accreditation applies to the entire institution, specific programs, and distance education within an institution.[4]

Regional and national accreditation

Prior to 2020, there were regional and national accrediting agencies, both of which were accountable to the Department of Education. Regional bodies historically accredited institutions in a particular region of the country. National bodies were established to accredit institutions across the country, and sometimes beyond it. Within American higher education, regional bodies were considered more prestigious.[5]

In February 2020, the Department of Education eliminated the distinction between regional and national accrediting agencies, creating one unified set of institutional accreditors.[6] The department claimed that the change was intended to encourage cooperation between accredited schools to improve student experiences, uphold quality standards, and reduce the cost of higher education by encouraging transparent transfer of credits and mutual recognition of degrees between schools with common standards. It also claimed that the change was intended to allow students to be able to access the best school for their needs no matter what region they reside in.[7]

Four months after this change was made, the WASC Senior College and University Commission became the first accreditor to formally change its membership rules and requirements to allow institutions outside its historical geographic region to apply for membership and accreditation.[8]

Historically, educational accreditation activities in the United States were overseen by seven regional accrediting agencies established in the late 19th and early 20th century to foster articulation between secondary schools and higher education institutions, particularly evaluation of prospective students by colleges and universities.[9][10] These seven agencies were membership organizations of educational institutions within their geographic regions. Initially, the main focus of the organizations was to accredit secondary schools and to establish uniform college entrance requirements.[9][10] Accreditation of colleges and universities followed later, with each of the accrediting agencies splitting into separate organizations with one or more of those organizations focused exclusively on accrediting colleges and universities.[10] The higher education institutions holding regional accreditation were primarily non-profit institutions, with significant exceptions, as the largest US for-profit universities (e.g., University of Phoenix, Grand Canyon University) achieved regional accreditation.[11][12][13]

Regionally accredited schools were usually academically oriented and most were non-profit. Nationally accredited schools, a large number of which are for-profit, typically offered specific vocational, career, or technical programs. Regionally accredited institutions employed large numbers of full-time faculty, and the faculty set the academic policies. Regionally-accredited schools were required to have adequate library facilities. Except for some specific subject areas such as nursing, nationally-accredited schools did not hire many full-time faculty, usually hiring faculty by the course, without benefits and with no influence on the school's academic policies, which were determined by non-academic administrators, and ultimately investors. Their library facilities, if they existed at all, were far inferior to those of regionally-accredited schools. While there were some legitimate and well-intentioned nationally accredited schools, by and large they existed not to educate, but to make money for their investors. They lived on federal student aid and very high tuitions, often leaving graduating students with credentials of little value and large student loans, often without job prospects by which to pay them off. Critics considered national accreditation to be disreputable.[5] Schools accredited by the Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges, a national accreditor, were occasionally sued for leading prospective students to believe, incorrectly, that they would have no problem transferring their credits to a regionally accredited school.[14][15][16]

Regionally-accredited colleges will usually honor the validity of credits or degrees awarded by other regionally-accredited colleges, but not by nationally-accredited colleges. Neither will nationally-accredited schools accept transfer credit from other nationally-accredited schools.

Recognized institutional accreditors

The U.S. Department of Education recognizes the following organizations as institutional accreditors:[17]

Programmatic accreditation

These accreditors typically cover a specific program of professional education or training, but in some cases they cover the whole institution. Best practices are shared and developed through affiliation with the Association of Professional and Specialized Accreditors.[18] Both the US Department of Education[19] and CHEA[20] maintain lists of recognized US programmatic accreditors:

Other recognized accreditors

Several organizations exist that accredit institutions and which are not recognized by the U.S. Department of Education or CHEA. These include:

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Distance education

Distance education

Distance education, also known as distance learning, is the education of students who may not always be physically present at a school, or where the learner and the teacher are separated in both time and distance. Traditionally, this usually involved correspondence courses wherein the student corresponded with the school via mail. Distance education is a technology mediated modality and has evolved with the evolution of technologies such as video conferencing, TV, and internet. Today, it usually involves online education and the learning is usually mediated by some form of technology. A distance learning program can be completely distance learning, or a combination of distance learning and traditional classroom instruction. Other modalities include distance learning with complementary virtual environment or teaching in virtual environment (e-learning).

Grand Canyon University

Grand Canyon University

Grand Canyon University (GCU) is a private for-profit Christian university in Phoenix, Arizona. Based on student enrollment, Grand Canyon University was the largest Christian university in the world in 2018, with 20,000 attending students on campus and 70,000 online.

Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools

Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools

The Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools (ABHES) is a recognized higher education accreditation organization in the United States specializing in the institutional accreditation of private, postsecondary institutions that offer allied health education programs, and the programmatic accreditation of programs leading to associate degrees or certificates in the medical assistant, medical laboratory technician and surgical technology fields. The ABHES is the only healthcare education accrediting agency that is recognized by the U.S. Department of Education. In addition to recognition by the U.S. Department of Education, the ABHES is also recognized by the American Association of Medical Assistants (AAMA), the American Medical Technologists (AMT) and the Liaison Council for Certification of Surgical Technologists (LLC-ST).

Accreditation Commission for Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine

Accreditation Commission for Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine

The Accreditation Commission for Acupuncture and Herbal Medicine (ACAHM) is a specialized accreditation agency recognized by the United States Department of Education. ACAHM is a 501(c)(3) not-for-profit corporation, incorporated in the District of Columbia with a corporate office in Eden Prairie, Minnesota. National, regional, and specialized accreditors are reviewed by the USDE to ensure that the accrediting body meets specific standards established by the United States Congress. The Secretary of Education is charged with review of accrediting bodies and providing recognition to those accrediting agencies that meet the Secretary of Education’s criteria. ACAHM’s scope of recognition from the USDE is "the accreditation and pre-accreditation ("candidacy") throughout the United States of professional non-degree and graduate degree programs, including professional doctoral programs, in the field of acupuncture and/or Oriental medicine, as well as freestanding institutions and colleges of acupuncture and/or Oriental medicine that offer such programs".

Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges

Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges

The Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges (ACCSC) is a private, 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization in the United States that provides national accreditation to private post-secondary educational institutions. It is recognized by the United States Department of Education as an independent accrediting agency. Established in 1965, it is based in Arlington, Virginia.

Accrediting Council for Continuing Education and Training

Accrediting Council for Continuing Education and Training

The Accrediting Council for Continuing Education and Training is a private, non-profit organization in the United States that provides national accreditation to private, post-secondary educational institutions offering non-collegiate vocational, avocational and English-language training which may be approved to award validated CEUs, certificates and/or an Occupational Associates Degree. The organization's headquarters are located in Washington, DC.

Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and Schools

Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and Schools

The Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and Schools (ACICS) is a non-profit education corporation that was recognized until 2022 by the United States Department of Education as an independent and autonomous national accrediting body.

American Bar Association

American Bar Association

The American Bar Association (ABA) is a voluntary bar association of lawyers and law students; it is not specific to any jurisdiction in the United States. Founded in 1878, the ABA's stated activities are the setting of academic standards for law schools, and the formulation of model ethical codes related to the legal profession. As of fiscal year 2017, the ABA had 194,000 dues-paying members, constituting approximately 14.4% of American attorneys. In 1979, half of all lawyers in the U.S. were members of the ABA. The organization's national headquarters are in Chicago, Illinois, and it also maintains a significant branch office in Washington, D.C.

American Osteopathic Association

American Osteopathic Association

The American Osteopathic Association (AOA) is the representative member organization for the more than 176,000 osteopathic medical doctors (D.O.s) and osteopathic medical students in the United States. The AOA is headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, and is involved in post-graduate training for osteopathic physicians. Beginning in 2015, it began accrediting post-graduate education as a committee within the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education, creating a unified accreditation system for all DOs and MDs in the United States. The organization promotes public health, encourages academic scientific research, serves as the primary certifying body for D.O.s overseeing 18 certifying boards, and is the accrediting agency for osteopathic medical schools through its Commission on Osteopathic College Accreditation. As of October 2015, the AOA no longer owns the Healthcare Facilities Accreditation Program (HFAP), which accredited hospitals and other health care facilities.

American Podiatric Medical Association

American Podiatric Medical Association

The American Podiatric Medical Association (APMA) is a professional medical organization representing Doctors of Podiatric Medicine (podiatrists) within the United States. The organization was founded in 1912 and is headquartered in Bethesda, Maryland. Approximately 80% of podiatrists in the US are members of the APMA. Under the APMA are 53 component societies in individual states and other jurisdictions, as well as 21 affiliated and related societies. Doctors of Podiatric Medicine are physicians and surgeons who practice on the lower extremities, primarily on the foot, ankle and lower leg. The preparatory education of most DPMs includes four years of undergraduate work, followed by four years in an accredited podiatric medical school, followed by a residency of 3–4 years. After residency, podiatric physicians may choose to pursue further education through fellowships in any subspecialty of podiatric medicine.

Association for Biblical Higher Education

Association for Biblical Higher Education

The Association for Biblical Higher Education (ABHE), formerly The Accrediting Association of Bible Colleges (AABC) is an evangelical Christian organization of bible colleges in the United States and Canada. It is a member of the International Council for Evangelical Theological Education. The ABHE is interdenominational but requires annual affirmation of a common statement of beliefs. It is headquartered in Orlando, Florida.

Association of Advanced Rabbinical and Talmudic Schools

Association of Advanced Rabbinical and Talmudic Schools

The Association of Advanced Rabbinical and Talmudic Schools (AARTS) is a faith-based national accreditation association for Rabbinical and Talmudic schools. It is based in New York, NY and is recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation and United States Department of Education.

Religious accreditors

Although many schools related to religious organizations hold regional accreditation or secular national accreditation, there are four different agencies that specialize in accreditation of religious schools:

These groups specialize in accrediting theological and religious schools including seminaries and graduate schools of theology, as well as broader-scope universities that teach from a religious viewpoint and may require students and/or faculty to subscribe to a statement of faith. Additionally, as of 2009, 20 U.S. states and Puerto Rico had some form of exemption provision under which religious institutions can grant religious degrees without accreditation or government oversight.[22][23]

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Association of Advanced Rabbinical and Talmudic Schools

Association of Advanced Rabbinical and Talmudic Schools

The Association of Advanced Rabbinical and Talmudic Schools (AARTS) is a faith-based national accreditation association for Rabbinical and Talmudic schools. It is based in New York, NY and is recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation and United States Department of Education.

Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada

Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada

The Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada (ATS) is an organization of seminaries and other graduate schools of theology. ATS has its headquarters in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

Association for Biblical Higher Education

Association for Biblical Higher Education

The Association for Biblical Higher Education (ABHE), formerly The Accrediting Association of Bible Colleges (AABC) is an evangelical Christian organization of bible colleges in the United States and Canada. It is a member of the International Council for Evangelical Theological Education. The ABHE is interdenominational but requires annual affirmation of a common statement of beliefs. It is headquartered in Orlando, Florida.

Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools

Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools

The Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools (TRACS) is a U.S. based institutional accreditation organization that focuses on Christian colleges, universities, and seminaries seeking collegiate accreditation in the United States. TRACS, which is based in Forest, Virginia, is recognized by the United States Department of Education and the Council for Higher Education Accreditation.

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico, officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, is a Caribbean island and unincorporated territory of the United States with official Commonwealth status. It is located in the northeast Caribbean Sea, approximately 1,000 miles (1,600 km) southeast of Miami, Florida, between the Dominican Republic and the U.S. Virgin Islands, and includes the eponymous main island and several smaller islands, such as Mona, Culebra, and Vieques. It has roughly 3.2 million residents, and its capital and most populous city is San Juan. Spanish and English are the official languages of the executive branch of government, though Spanish predominates.

Use of .edu top-level Internet domain

Main article: .edu

Since 2001, the use of the top-level internet domain, .edu has been restricted to accredited institutions, but non-qualifying institutions can still use .edu domain names obtained before the current rules came into force.[24] Academia.edu is a for-profit social networking site for academics.

Criticism of accreditation

Various commenters have written about the role and effectiveness of the American accreditation system. It has drawn particular interest since the rise of e-learning classes and institutions. A frequent point of discussion and criticism is that the traditional system is limited to measuring "input" factors, such as adequate facilities and properly credentialed faculty, rather than the quality of a school's educational output.[25]

In his 1996 book Crisis in the Academy, Christopher J. Lucas criticized the accreditation system as too expensive, onerously complicated, incestuous in its organization, and not properly tied to quality.[26][27] Similarly, a 2002 report by George C. Leef and Roxana D. Burris of the American Council of Trustees and Alumni (ACTA) argued that the system does not ensure or protect educational quality, while still imposing significant costs.[28][29] In a 2006 "issue paper", Robert C. Dickeson wrote that a lack of transparency, low and lax standards, and outdated regionalization were among the problems with regional accreditation.[30] Others, such as Edward M. Elmendorf of the American Association of State Colleges and Universities, reject these claims, arguing that they are "picking around the edges" of a proven and necessary system for upholding standards.[26][31] Thomas C. Reeves notes that some schools unable or unwilling to meet the standards of traditional, regional accrediting bodies are closely involves, have begun much involved in creating national accrediting agencies with significantly lower standards.[32]

At various times the U.S. government has investigated changes to the accreditation system. In 2002 the House of Representatives Subcommittee on 21st Century Competitiveness criticized the system.[31] Accreditation was a major topic of the Spellings Commission, which released its report on September 26, 2006.[33] The Council for Higher Education Accreditation recognizes that there are criticisms,[34] but has opposed these calls for reform, with President Judith S. Eaton arguing that the system is successful and needs to remain flexible to accommodate differences between schools and disciplines.[31] In 2013, President Barack Obama proposed changes in the accreditation system to hold "colleges accountable for cost, value, and quality".[35] He requested Congress change the Higher Education Act so that affordability and value are considered in determining which institutions are accredited and allow students access to federal financial aid; his criticism was directed at for-profit institutions.[36]

An article published by "University World News" on 2 February 2018 stated that the higher education accreditation community, which confers the quality-assurance seal of approval that allows United States colleges and universities access to billions of dollars of federal student aid, must do a better job of explaining itself to the public if it wants to reverse waning public confidence in higher education. That was one of the tamer recommendations voiced at a conference for accreditors, who are feeling the brunt of growing scepticism about the value of a US college degree.[37]

Discover more about Criticism of accreditation related topics

American Council of Trustees and Alumni

American Council of Trustees and Alumni

The American Council of Trustees and Alumni (ACTA) is a conservative non-profit organization whose stated mission is to "support liberal arts education, uphold high academic standards, safeguard the free exchange of ideas on campus, and ensure that the next generation receives a philosophically rich, high-quality college education at an affordable price." ACTA does so primarily by calling on trustees to take on a more assertive governing role. It is based in Washington, D.C., and its current president is Michael Poliakoff.

American Association of State Colleges and Universities

American Association of State Colleges and Universities

The American Association of State Colleges and Universities (AASCU) is an organization of state-supported colleges and universities that offer degree programs leading to bachelor's, master's or doctoral degrees. AASCU grew out of the Association of Teacher Education Institutions that had been organized in 1951 to serve public comprehensive institutions. Most of the original member institutions began as single-purpose institutions, most commonly normal schools.

Council for Higher Education Accreditation

Council for Higher Education Accreditation

The Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) is a United States organization of degree-granting colleges and universities. It identifies its purpose as providing national advocacy for academic quality through accreditation in order to certify the quality of higher education accrediting organizations, including regional, faith-based, private, career, and programmatic accrediting organizations.

Barack Obama

Barack Obama

Barack Hussein Obama II is an American former politician who served as the 44th president of the United States from 2009 to 2017. A member of the Democratic Party, he was the first African-American president of the United States. Obama previously served as a U.S. senator from Illinois from 2005 to 2008 and as an Illinois state senator from 1997 to 2004, and previously worked as a civil rights lawyer before entering politics.

Source: "Higher education accreditation in the United States", Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, (2022, September 1st), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_education_accreditation_in_the_United_States.

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Further Reading

Trinity International University

Western Association of Schools and Colleges

Capella University

North Central Association of Colleges and Schools

Council for Higher Education Accreditation

Trinity College of the Bible and Theological Seminary

U.S. Career Institute

Accreditation Service for International Colleges

Apollos University
See also
Notes
References
  1. ^ "Recognition of Accreditation Organizations: A Comparison of Policy & Practice of Voluntary Accreditation and The United States Department of Education" (PDF). CHEA. January 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 15, 2010. Retrieved November 6, 2009.
  2. ^ U.S. Department of Education, Accreditation in the United States
  3. ^ College Review Journal, Complete List of National Accrediting Agencies Archived 2011-06-16 at the Wayback Machine.
  4. ^ U.S. Department of Education, Accreditation in the United States
  5. ^ a b Aasen, Adam (November 18, 2008). "Battle rages on accreditation, college money". The Florida Times-Union. Retrieved June 3, 2011.
  6. ^ 2020 February USDoEd Final Accreditation and State Authorization Regulations [1]
  7. ^ Judith Eaton, CHEA President Expresses Pros and Cons for Regionals going National https://www.chea.org/will-regional-accreditation-go-national-0
  8. ^ Lederman, Doug (February 27, 2020). "Go East (or North), Regional Accreditor". Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved April 23, 2022.
  9. ^ a b Fred F. Harcleroad and Judith S. Eaton (2005), "The Hidden Hand: External Constituencies and their Impact," Chapter 9 in Philip G. Altbach, Robert Oliver Berdahl, and Patricia J. Gumport, editors, American higher education in the twenty-first century: social, political, and economic challenges. Page 263. JHU Press. ISBN 0-8018-8035-1, ISBN 978-0-8018-8035-3.
  10. ^ a b c History of the North Central Association
  11. ^ Judith S. Eaton, Accreditation and Recognition in the United States Archived 2012-03-07 at the Wayback Machine, CHEA, 2008.
  12. ^ Geteducated.com. "Regional Accreditation vs National Accreditation for Online Colleges". Retrieved March 20, 2018.
  13. ^ Lechuga, Vicente (2005). The Changing Landscape of the Academic Profession. Routledge. p. 48. ISBN 9781135508678. Regional accreditation is considered more prestigious than national accreditation.
  14. ^ Heffter, Emily; Perry, Nick (February 24, 2006). "Student Takes on College and Wins". Seattle Times. Retrieved June 1, 2010 – via nwsource.com.
  15. ^ Billman, Jeffrey C. (April 14, 2005). "Bad Education". Orlandoweekly.com. Retrieved June 1, 2010.
  16. ^ Hechinger, John (October 3, 2005). "A Battle Over Standards At For-Profit Colleges". Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on December 4, 2008. Retrieved June 1, 2010 – via Collegejournal.com.
  17. ^ "Institutional Accrediting Agencies". U.S. Department of Education. 2021. Retrieved May 25, 2021.
  18. ^ "Association of Professional and Specialized Accreditors". ASPA-USA.org. March 31, 2003. Retrieved June 1, 2010.
  19. ^ "Accreditation in the United States: Programmatic Accrediting Agencies". U.S. Department of Education. June 28, 2021. Retrieved July 3, 2021.
  20. ^ "Programmatic Accrediting Organizations". Council for Higher Education Accreditation. 2021. Retrieved July 3, 2021.
  21. ^ The Committee of Bar Examiners, State Bar of California (August 28, 2009). Guidelines for Accredited Law School Rules. Retrieved October 4, 2010.
  22. ^ Religious Exempt Schools Archived 2011-02-21 at the Wayback Machine, Oregon Student Assistance Commission Office of Degree Authorization website, accessed March 21, 2011
  23. ^ EXEMPTIONS FROM THE HIGHER EDUCATION LICENSING PROCESS FOR RELIGIOUS COLLEGES Archived 2018-03-21 at the Wayback Machine, Connecticut General Assembly website, accessed March 21, 2018
  24. ^ ".edu Internet Addresses". Diploma Mills and Accreditation – Diploma Mills. United States Department of Education. December 23, 2009. Retrieved February 19, 2010.
  25. ^ Reeves, Thomas C. (2003). "Storm Clouds on the Digital Education Horizon". Journal of Computing in Higher Education. 15 (1): 12–13. doi:10.1007/BF02940850. S2CID 15523346.
  26. ^ a b Reeves, Thomas C. (2003). "Storm Clouds on the Digital Education Horizon". Journal of Computing in Higher Education. 15 (1): 14. doi:10.1007/BF02940850. S2CID 15523346.
  27. ^ Lucas, Christopher J. (1996). Crisis in the Academy: Rethinking Higher Education in America. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 9780312129361.
  28. ^ Leef, George C.; Burris, Roxana D. (2002). "Can college accreditation live up to its promise?" (PDF). American Council of Trustees and Alumni. Retrieved September 7, 2012. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  29. ^ Reeves, Thomas C. (2003). "Storm Clouds on the Digital Education Horizon". Journal of Computing in Higher Education. 15 (1): 13–14. doi:10.1007/BF02940850. S2CID 15523346.
  30. ^ Doug Lederman (March 31, 2006). "Dropping a Bomb on Accreditation". Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved May 17, 2013.
  31. ^ a b c Richard Morgan (October 11, 2002). "Lawmakers Call for More Accountability From Accreditation System". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved September 7, 2012.
  32. ^ Reeves, Thomas C. (2003). "Storm Clouds on the Digital Education Horizon". Journal of Computing in Higher Education. 15 (1): 12, 14–15. doi:10.1007/BF02940850. S2CID 15523346.
  33. ^ Spellings Commission (2006). A Test of Leadership: Charting the Future of U.S. Higher Education (PDF). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. p. 5. Accreditation, along with federal and state regulation, can impede creative new approaches as well.
  34. ^ Eaton, Judith S. (June 28–29, 2001). "Taking a look at ourselves, accreditation". Letter from the President. Council for Higher Education Accreditation. Archived from the original on March 22, 2013. Retrieved April 12, 2013. U.S. accreditation, then, is a robust, complex and unwieldy and sometimes controversial enterprise. These are the first things that we see when we 'take a look at ourselves, accreditation...'
  35. ^ Eric Kelderman (February 13, 2013). "Obama's Accreditation Proposals Surprise Higher-Education Leaders". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved April 12, 2013.
  36. ^ Chris Parr (February 21, 2013). "Obama wants cost to feature in accreditation scheme". Times Higher Education. Retrieved April 19, 2013.
  37. ^ Mary Beth Marklein (February 2, 2018). "HE accreditation sector faces pressure to reform". Retrieved August 19, 2020.
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