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Haliotis rufescens

From Wikipedia, in a visual modern way
Haliotis rufescens
Temporal range: 70 –0 Ma[1]
Haliotis rufescens.jpeg

Apparently Secure (NatureServe)
Scientific classification edit
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Gastropoda
Subclass: Vetigastropoda
Order: Lepetellida
Superfamily: Haliotoidea
Family: Haliotidae
Genus: Haliotis
Species:
H. rufescens
Binomial name
Haliotis rufescens
Swainson, 1822
Synonyms[3]
  • Haliotis californiana Valenciennes, 1832
  • Haliotis hattorii Bartsch, 1940
  • Haliotis ponderosa C. B. Adams, 1848
Interior of the shell of a red abalone. The US coin (quarter) is 23 mm, or a little under an inch in diameter
Interior of the shell of a red abalone. The US coin (quarter) is 23 mm, or a little under an inch in diameter
Outer surface of shell of red abalone, viewed from the anterior end. The coin is 23 mm (almost 1 inch) across
Outer surface of shell of red abalone, viewed from the anterior end. The coin is 23 mm (almost 1 inch) across

Haliotis rufescens (red abalone) is a species of very large edible sea snail in the family Haliotidae, the abalones, ormer shells or paua.[3] It is distributed from British Columbia, Canada, to Baja California, Mexico.[4][5] It is most common in the southern half of its range.[4]

Red abalone is the largest and most common abalone found in the northern part of the state of California.[6]

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Species

Species

In biology, a species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. It is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. Other ways of defining species include their karyotype, DNA sequence, morphology, behaviour, or ecological niche. In addition, paleontologists use the concept of the chronospecies since fossil reproduction cannot be examined.

Sea snail

Sea snail

Sea snail is a common name for slow-moving marine gastropod molluscs, usually with visible external shells, such as whelk or abalone. They share the taxonomic class Gastropoda with slugs, which are distinguished from snails primarily by the absence of a visible shell.

Haliotis

Haliotis

Haliotis, common name abalone, is the only genus in the family Haliotidae.

Abalone

Abalone

Abalone is a common name for any of a group of small to very large marine gastropod molluscs in the family Haliotidae. Other common names are ear shells, sea ears, and, rarely, muttonfish or muttonshells in parts of Australia, ormer in the UK, perlemoen in South Africa, and paua in New Zealand. Abalones are marine snails. Their taxonomy puts them in the family Haliotidae, which contains only one genus, Haliotis, which once contained six subgenera. These subgenera have become alternative representations of Haliotis. The number of species recognized worldwide ranges between 30 and 130 with over 230 species-level taxa described. The most comprehensive treatment of the family considers 56 species valid, with 18 additional subspecies. The shells of abalones have a low, open spiral structure, and are characterized by several open respiratory pores in a row near the shell's outer edge. The thick inner layer of the shell is composed of nacre (mother-of-pearl), which in many species is highly iridescent, giving rise to a range of strong, changeable colors which make the shells attractive to humans as decorative objects, jewelry, and as a source of colorful mother-of-pearl.

British Columbia

British Columbia

British Columbia, commonly abbreviated as BC, is the westernmost province of Canada, situated between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. It has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that include rocky coastlines, sandy beaches, forests, lakes, mountains, inland deserts and grassy plains, and borders the province of Alberta to the east, the territories of Yukon and Northwest Territories to the north, and the US states of Washington, Idaho and Montana to the south and Alaska to the northwest. With an estimated population of 5.3 million as of 2022, it is Canada's third-most populous province. The capital of British Columbia is Victoria and its largest city is Vancouver. Vancouver is the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada; the 2021 census recorded 2.6 million people in Metro Vancouver.

Baja California

Baja California

Baja California, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Baja California, is a state in Mexico. It is the northernmost and westernmost of the 32 federal entities of Mexico. Before becoming a state in 1952, the area was known as the North Territory of Baja California. It has an area of 70,113 km2 (27,071 sq mi) and comprises the northern half of the Baja California Peninsula, north of the 28th parallel, plus oceanic Guadalupe Island. The mainland portion of the state is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean; on the east by Sonora, the U.S. state of Arizona, and the Gulf of California; on the north by the U.S. state of California; and on the south by Baja California Sur.

California

California

California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2 million residents across a total area of approximately 163,696 square miles (423,970 km2), it is the most populous U.S. state and the third-largest by area. It is also the most populated subnational entity in North America and the 34th most populous in the world. The Greater Los Angeles and San Francisco Bay areas are the nation's second and fifth most populous urban regions respectively, with the former having more than 18.7 million residents and the latter having over 9.6 million. Sacramento is the state's capital, while Los Angeles is the most populous city in the state and the second most populous city in the country. San Francisco is the second most densely populated major city in the country. Los Angeles County is the country's most populous, while San Bernardino County is the largest county by area in the country. California borders Oregon to the north, Nevada and Arizona to the east, the Mexican state of Baja California to the south; and it has a coastline along the Pacific Ocean to the west.

Habitat

Red abalone live in rocky areas with kelp. They feed on the kelp species that grow in their home range, including giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera), feather boa kelp (Egregia menziesii), and bull kelp (Nereocystis luetkeana). Juveniles eat coralline algae, bacteria, and diatoms.[7] They are found from the intertidal zone to water more than 180 m (590 ft) deep, but are most common between 6 and 40 m (20 and 131 ft).[4]

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Macrocystis pyrifera

Macrocystis pyrifera

Macrocystis pyrifera, commonly known as giant kelp or bladder kelp, is a species of kelp, and one of four species in the genus Macrocystis. Despite its appearance, it is not a plant; it is a heterokont. Giant kelp is common along the coast of the northeastern Pacific Ocean, from Baja California north to southeast Alaska, and is also found in the southern oceans near South America, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. Individual algae may grow to more than 45 metres long at a rate of as much as 60 cm (2 ft) per day. Giant kelp grows in dense stands known as kelp forests, which are home to many marine animals that depend on the algae for food or shelter. The primary commercial product obtained from giant kelp is alginate, but humans also harvest this species on a limited basis for use directly as food, as it is rich in iodine, potassium, and other minerals. It can be used in cooking in many of the ways other sea vegetables are used, and particularly serves to add flavor to bean dishes.

Nereocystis

Nereocystis

Nereocystis is a monotypic genus of subtidal kelp containing the species Nereocystis luetkeana. Some English names include edible kelp, bull kelp, bullwhip kelp, ribbon kelp, bladder wrack, and variations of these names. Due to the English name, bull kelp can be confused with southern bull kelps, which are found in the Southern Hemisphere. Nereocystis luetkeana forms thick beds on subtidal rocks, and is an important part of kelp forests.

Bacteria

Bacteria

Bacteria are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, and the deep biosphere of Earth's crust. Bacteria are vital in many stages of the nutrient cycle by recycling nutrients such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere. The nutrient cycle includes the decomposition of dead bodies; bacteria are responsible for the putrefaction stage in this process. In the biological communities surrounding hydrothermal vents and cold seeps, extremophile bacteria provide the nutrients needed to sustain life by converting dissolved compounds, such as hydrogen sulphide and methane, to energy. Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised and there are many species that cannot be grown in the laboratory. The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology, a branch of microbiology.

Diatom

Diatom

A diatom is any member of a large group comprising several genera of algae, specifically microalgae, found in the oceans, waterways and soils of the world. Living diatoms make up a significant portion of the Earth's biomass: they generate about 20 to 50 percent of the oxygen produced on the planet each year, take in over 6.7 billion metric tons of silicon each year from the waters in which they live, and constitute nearly half of the organic material found in the oceans. The shells of dead diatoms can reach as much as a half-mile deep on the ocean floor, and the entire Amazon basin is fertilized annually by 27 million tons of diatom shell dust transported by transatlantic winds from the African Sahara, much of it from the Bodélé Depression, which was once made up of a system of fresh-water lakes.

Shell description

The red abalone's shell length can reach a maximum of 31 cm (12 in), making it the largest species of abalone in the world.[8]

The shell is large, thick, dome-shaped, and usually covered with barnacles, vegetation, or other marine growth making the color and shell sculpture difficult to determine. It is usually a dull brick red color externally. Typically the shell has three to four slightly raised oval holes or respiratory pores, although specimens with no holes and others with more than four have been found. These holes collectively make up what is known as the selenizone which form as the shell grows. The inside of the shell appears polished and is strongly iridescent. A central, prominent muscle scar is easily visible in the shells of most Red Abalone, marking the location at which Haliotis rufescen's strong columellar muscle attaches.[9]

This species was used as the subject in a study of the microscopic development of nacre.[10]

External anatomy of soft parts

Below the edge of the shell, the black epipodium and tentacles can be seen. The underside of the foot is yellowish white in color.

Sex Ratio

Female members of dioecious molluscan species have been known to be more common than males. In populations that experience human predation, this difference can be exacerbated, as is the case with populations of Haliotis rufescens. From 1972-1973, researchers studying red abalone populations at Point Cabrillo Lighthouse Station and Van Damme State Park found that the level at which human predation occurs can have profound effects on the age class structure of each population. For many years, the abalone at Van Damme were heavily fished and the population structure reflected a notable lack of larger, older individuals. At Point Cabrillo, however, abalone harvesting had been halted for some time, and populations of red abalone showed the development of a natural age class structure and sex ratio.[11]

Diseases

Red abalones are subject to a chronic, progressive and lethal disease: the withering syndrome or abalone wasting disease caused by Rickettsiales-like prokaryotes. This disease has had a historically grim effect on the species overall, decimating populations across their native habitat. Today, the effects of withering syndrome on current populations are poorly understood, but populations are still low. Elevated water temperatures have been shown to speed up the progression and transmission of withering syndrome in infected individuals. Exposed abalones experiencing starvation at 18.0 °C are far more likely to become infected than exposed individuals at 12.3 °C. This was shown in a 2005 study which was the first to indicate that temperature has a significant effect on Rickettsiales-like, prokaryote induced wasting syndrome transmission.[12]

History of human use

Red abalone has been used since prehistoric times—red abalone shells have been found in Channel Island archaeological sites dated to nearly 12,000 years old. Red abalone middens—refuse deposits where red abalone shells are a major constituent—are abundant in archaeological sites of the Northern Channel Islands dated between about 7500 and 3500 years ago. The Native American Chumash peoples also harvested this species along the Central California coast in the pre-contact era.[13] The Chumash and other California Indians also used red abalone shells to make a variety of fishhooks, beads, ornaments, and other artifacts.

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Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Indigenous peoples of the Americas

The Indigenous peoples of the Americas are the inhabitants of the Americas before the arrival of the European settlers in the 15th century, and the ethnic groups who now identify themselves with those peoples.

Chumash people

Chumash people

The Chumash are a Native American people of the central and southern coastal regions of California, in portions of what is now San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, Ventura and Los Angeles counties, extending from Morro Bay in the north to Malibu in the south. Their territory included three of the Channel Islands: Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa, and San Miguel; the smaller island of Anacapa was likely inhabited seasonally due to the lack of a consistent water source.

Central California

Central California

Central California is generally thought of as the middle third of the state, north of Southern California, which includes Los Angeles, and south of Northern California, which includes San Francisco. It includes the northern portion of the San Joaquin Valley, part of the Central Coast, the central hills of the California Coast Ranges and the foothills and mountain areas of the central Sierra Nevada.

History of diseases

Inner view of the shell of a red abalone.
Inner view of the shell of a red abalone.

In the 1980s, an employee of the California Department of Fish and Wildlife who was privately farming abalone in California imported some South African abalone (Haliotis midae) and failed to quarantine them. With the abalone were introduced the non-native polychaete worm Terebrasabella heterouncinata. This worm escaped into the ocean at Cayucos, California, where an abalone farm had long been established. It also entered the wild at many other sites. Scientists at the University of California, Santa Barbara and the Department of Fish and Wildlife joined the staff of the abalone farm and many volunteers to eradicate the pest.[14]

Shortly after this, another disease of abalone appeared on Santa Cruz Island. It spread to the other Channel Islands of California and to the mainland of California. This bacterial disease proved to be devastating to both wild and farmed populations. It was named "withering syndrome" because the abalones starved to death even when food was plentiful. This was because the bacterium infested the digestive tract of the abalones and prevented digestion and absorption of kelp, the abalone's primary food source. The bacterium is a member of the family Rickettsiaceae.[15]

Coincidentally, withering syndrome first appeared a few years after H. midae were imported into California, near Smugglers Cove on Santa Cruz Island, adjacent to the area where seaweed was harvested for an abalone farm at Port Hueneme, California.[16] Its spread was aided by the Department of Fish and Game, which planted infected abalone into the wild north of Point Conception.[17]

This bacterium attacks several species of abalone. It causes the viscera and foot muscle to atrophy, causing lethargy and starvation. The infected abalone cannot move along the substrate or right itself when upended. The disease is fatal.[15]

Withering syndrome, overfishing, and habitat loss has been responsible for the listing of black abalone and white abalone as Endangered Species. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service will begin a program to reintroduce abalone. Withering syndrome has struck all the abalone farms in California at one time or another, and has also been spread to Iceland and Ireland by the export of infected California Red Abalone, H. rufescens.

Abalone exported to Israel before H. midae were imported to California were not reported to have withering syndrome. Black abalone, red abalone, green abalone, white abalone, and two other species of abalone have virtually disappeared from Southern California because of withering syndrome, while the Northern California populations have remained more numerous because of the colder waters. Green abalone and white abalone are now not common in Northern California, whereas they were once numerous in Southern California, and black abalone may become extinct in the near future.

Farming

Because of the destruction of most wild populations, abalone farming has become a booming business. Unlike some aquaculture operations, the farming of abalone is considered to be a form of sustainable agriculture.[18] Few chemicals are used in the process and the abalone are fed locally harvested kelp, which promptly grows back in abundance.[18] Some algae is grown for the purpose, as well.[18]

Wild harvest

In 1916, documentation of the modern California fishery began.[19] Fishing for these abalone populations peaked in the 1950s and 1960s and was followed by a decline in all five abalone species, red, green, pink, white, and black.[19] Prior to this point, the fishery seemed sustainable with the increase in species that could be fished and the expansion of fishing areas.[20] Disease and the recovery of sea otter populations contributed to the decline of the abalone, and the California Fish and Game Commission ended fishing for abalone in 1997.[19]

In Northern California, however, commercial fishing was only legal for three years during World War II.[21] As a result, a recreational fishery still exists in northern California. Because scuba diving to harvest abalone is banned, the fishery consists of shore pickers searching the rocks at low tide, and free divers using breath-hold diving to search for them. This essentially creates a reserve for the abalone in the water below 30 ft (9 m), where few divers are skilled enough to go. Currently, the minimum legal size is 7 in (18 cm), but a moratorium has been in effect since 2017.

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California Department of Fish and Wildlife

California Department of Fish and Wildlife

The California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW), formerly known as the California Department of Fish and Game (CDFG), is a state agency under the California Natural Resources Agency. The Department of Fish and Wildlife manages and protects the state's wildlife, wildflowers, trees, mushrooms, algae (kelp) and native habitats (ecosystems). The department is responsible for regulatory enforcement and management of related recreational, commercial, scientific, and educational uses. The department also prevents illegal poaching.

Haliotis midae

Haliotis midae

Haliotis midae, known commonly as the South African abalone or the perlemoen abalone, is a species of large sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.

Polychaete

Polychaete

Polychaeta is a paraphyletic class of generally marine annelid worms, commonly called bristle worms or polychaetes. Each body segment has a pair of fleshy protrusions called parapodia that bear many bristles, called chaetae, which are made of chitin. More than 10,000 species are described in this class. Common representatives include the lugworm and the sandworm or clam worm Alitta.

Cayucos, California

Cayucos, California

Cayucos is an unincorporated coastal town in San Luis Obispo County, California, along California State Route 1 between Cambria to the north and Morro Bay to the south. The population was 2,505 at the 2020 census, down from 2,592 at the 2010 census.

University of California, Santa Barbara

University of California, Santa Barbara

The University of California, Santa Barbara is a public land-grant research university in Santa Barbara, California. It is part of the University of California 10-university system. Tracing its roots back to 1891 as an independent teachers' college, UCSB joined the University of California system in 1944 and is the third-oldest undergraduate campus in the system, after UC Berkeley and UCLA. In 2021, the university enrolled 23,196 undergraduate and 2,983 graduate students.

Santa Cruz Island

Santa Cruz Island

Santa Cruz Island is located off the southwestern coast of Ventura, California, United States. It is the largest island in California and largest of the eight islands in the Channel Islands archipelago and Channel Islands National Park. Forming part of the northern group of the Channel Islands, Santa Cruz is 22 miles (35 km) long and 2 to 6 miles wide with an area of 61,764.6 acres (249.952 km2).

Rickettsiaceae

Rickettsiaceae

The Rickettsiaceae are a family of bacteria. The genus Rickettsia is the most prominent genus within the family. The bacteria that eventually formed the mitochondrion is believed to have originated from this family. Most human pathogens in this family are in genus Rickettsia. They spend part of their lifecycle in the bodies of arthropods such as ticks or lice, and are then transmitted to humans or other mammals by the bite of the arthropod. It contains Gram-negative bacteria, very sensitive to environmental exposure, thus is adapted to obligate intracellular infection. Rickettsia rickettsii is considered the prototypical infectious organism in the group.

Port Hueneme, California

Port Hueneme, California

Port Hueneme is a small beach city in Ventura County, California, surrounded by the city of Oxnard and the Santa Barbara Channel. Both the Port of Hueneme and Naval Base Ventura County lie within the city limits.

Point Conception

Point Conception

Point Conception is a headland along the Gaviota Coast in southwestern Santa Barbara County, California. It is the point where the Santa Barbara Channel meets the Pacific Ocean, and as the corner between the mostly north-south trending portion of coast to the north and the east-west trending part of the coast near Santa Barbara, it makes a natural division between Southern and Central California, and is commonly used as such in regional weather forecasts. The Point Conception Lighthouse is at its tip.

United States Fish and Wildlife Service

United States Fish and Wildlife Service

The United States Fish and Wildlife Service is an agency within the United States Department of the Interior dedicated to the management of fish, wildlife, and natural habitats. The mission of the agency is "working with others to conserve, protect, and enhance fish, wildlife, plants and their habitats for the continuing benefit of the American people."

Sustainable agriculture

Sustainable agriculture

Sustainable agriculture is farming in sustainable ways meeting society's present food and textile needs, without compromising the ability for current or future generations to meet their needs. It can be based on an understanding of ecosystem services. There are many methods to increase the sustainability of agriculture. When developing agriculture within sustainable food systems, it is important to develop flexible business process and farming practices. Agriculture has an enormous environmental footprint, playing a significant role in causing climate change, water scarcity, water pollution, land degradation, deforestation and other processes; it is simultaneously causing environmental changes and being impacted by these changes. Sustainable agriculture consists of environment friendly methods of farming that allow the production of crops or livestock without damage to human or natural systems. It involves preventing adverse effects to soil, water, biodiversity, surrounding or downstream resources—as well as to those working or living on the farm or in neighboring areas. Elements of sustainable agriculture can include permaculture, agroforestry, mixed farming, multiple cropping, and crop rotation.

World War II

World War II

World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a global conflict that lasted from 1939 to 1945. The vast majority of the world's countries, including all of the great powers, fought as part of two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. Many participants threw their economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind this total war, blurring the distinction between civilian and military resources. Aircraft played a major role, enabling the strategic bombing of population centres and the delivery of the only two nuclear weapons ever used in war.

Source: "Haliotis rufescens", Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, (2023, February 9th), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haliotis_rufescens.

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Further Reading

Abalone

Haliotis cracherodii

Pāua

Haliotis sorenseni

Haliotis australis

Haliotis iris

Haliotis laevigata

Haliotis kamtschatkana

Haliotis asinina

Haliotis corrugata

Pleurotomariacea

Haliotis spadicea

Haliotis pourtalesii

Haliotis rubra

Haliotis alfredensis

Haliotis fulgens

Haliotis walallensis

Haliotis parva
References
  1. ^ Lindberg, D. R. 1992. Evolution, distribution and systematics of Haliotidae. Pp 3–18 in: S. A. Shepherd, M. Tegner, and S. A. Guzman, eds. Abalone of the world: biology, fisheries and culture. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford.
  2. ^ Peters, H., Rogers-Bennett, L. & De Shields, R.M. (2021). "Haliotis rufescens". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T78771583A78772573. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T78771583A78772573.en.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ a b Rosenberg, G. (2014). Haliotis rufescens Swainson, 1822. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species on 2014-10-28
  4. ^ a b c Cowles, D. (2005). Haliotis rufescens. Archived 2015-02-25 at the Wayback Machine Biological Department, Walla Walla University. Retrieved 25 February 2015.
  5. ^ NatureServe. 2015. Haliotis rufescens. NatureServe Explorer. Version 7.1. February 11, 2016.
  6. ^ Red Abalone Fishery Management Plan. California Department of Fish and Wildlife.
  7. ^ Red abalone (Haliotis rufescens). Aquarium of the Pacific. Long Beach, California.
  8. ^ Life History Information for Selected California Marine Invertebrates and Plants. California Department of Fish and Wildlife.
  9. ^ Cox, Keith W. (1962). "Fish Bulletin No. 118. California Abalones, Family Haliotidae". UC San Diego Fish Bulletin. 118. Retrieved 30 January 2021.
  10. ^ Yao, N., et al. (2009). Organic–inorganic interfaces and spiral growth in nacre. Journal of the Royal Society Interface 6(33), 367-76.
  11. ^ Giorgi, A. E.; DeMartini, John D. (1977). "A study of the reproductive biology of the red abalone, Haliotis rufescens Swainson, near Mendocino, California" (PDF). California Fish and Game. 63 (2): 80–94. Retrieved 30 January 2021.
  12. ^ Braid, Beverly A.; Moore, James D.; Robbins, Thea T.; Hedrick, Ronald P.; Tjeerdema, Ronald S.; Friedman, Carolyn S. (2005). "Health and survival of red abalone, Haliotis rufescens, under varying temperature, food supply, and exposure to the agent of withering syndrome". Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 89 (3): 219–231. doi:10.1016/j.jip.2005.06.004. PMID 16039668. Retrieved 31 January 2021.
  13. ^ Hogan, C. M. Los Osos Back Bay. The Megalithic Portal, editor A. Burnham (2008).
  14. ^ Culver, Carolynn S. & M. Kuris, Armand (2000). "The apparent eradication of a locally established introduced marine pest". Biological Invasions. 2 (3): 245–253. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.477.2351. doi:10.1023/A:1010082407254. S2CID 38680268.
  15. ^ a b Withering Syndrome of Abalone. Fisheries and Oceans Canada.
  16. ^ Lafferty, K. D., & Kuris, A. M. (1993). Mass mortality of abalone Haliotis cracherodii on the California Channel Islands: tests of epidemiological hypotheses. Marine Ecology – Progress Series, 96, 239-239.
  17. ^ Friedman, Carolyn S. & Finley, Carl A. (2003). "Anthropogenic introduction of the etiological agent of withering syndrome into northern California abalone populations via conservation efforts". Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 60 (11): 1424–1431. doi:10.1139/f03-121.
  18. ^ a b c Bailey, K. M. Monterey Bay abalone farm shows what sustainable aquaculture can be like. Earth Island Journal March 12, 2015.
  19. ^ a b c Haaker, P. L; Taniguchi, I.; Artusio, M. (2005). "Assessment of Abalone Stocks in Southern California: The First Stage of Recovery" (PDF). In: Godfrey, J. M.; Shumway, S. E. Diving for Science 2005. Proceedings of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences Symposium on March 10–12, 2005, at the University of Connecticut at Avery Point, Groton, Connecticut. American Academy of Underwater Sciences. Retrieved 2016-02-11.
  20. ^ Karpov, K., Haaker, P., Taniguchi, I., & Rogers-Bennett, L. Serial depletion and the collapse of the California abalone (Haliotis spp.) fishery. Pp 11-24 In: Workshop on Rebuilding Abalone Stocks in British Columbia. A. Campbell, Ed. Canadian Special Publication of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. NRC Research Press, 2000.
  21. ^ "Marine Protected Areas in Central California and Potential Benefits to Selected Species: Abalone" (PDF). California Department of Fish and Game. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-06-02. Retrieved 2012-05-07.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Haliotis rufescens.
Further reading
  • Geiger D.L. & Owen B. (2012) Abalone: Worldwide Haliotidae. Hackenheim: Conchbooks. viii + 361 pp. page(s): 120
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