Get Our Extension
Select Wikiz in another Language
Settings
A
A
Text Highlights
Notes/Citations
Edit on Wikipedia

Share This Article

About Wikiz About Us Cookies Policy Terms & Services Privacy Policy Contact Contact us Enjoying Wikipedia Content? DONATE TO WIKIPEDIA
Enjoying Wikipedia Content? DONATE TO WIKIPEDIA

Gene delivery

From Wikipedia, in a visual modern way
Part of a series on
Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering logo.png
 
Genetically modified organisms
History and regulation
Process
Applications
Controversies

Gene delivery is the process of introducing foreign genetic material, such as DNA or RNA, into host cells.[1] Gene delivery must reach the genome of the host cell to induce gene expression.[2] Successful gene delivery requires the foreign gene delivery to remain stable within the host cell and can either integrate into the genome or replicate independently of it.[3] This requires foreign DNA to be synthesized as part of a vector, which is designed to enter the desired host cell and deliver the transgene to that cell's genome.[4] Vectors utilized as the method for gene delivery can be divided into two categories, recombinant viruses and synthetic vectors (viral and non-viral).[2][5]

In complex multicellular eukaryotes (more specifically Weissmanists), if the transgene is incorporated into the host's germline cells, the resulting host cell can pass the transgene to its progeny. If the transgene is incorporated into somatic cells, the transgene will stay with the somatic cell line, and thus its host organism.[6]

Gene delivery is a necessary step in gene therapy for the introduction or silencing of a gene to promote a therapeutic outcome in patients and also has applications in the genetic modification of crops. There are many different methods of gene delivery for various types of cells and tissues.[6]

Discover more about Gene delivery related topics

DNA

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix. The polymer carries genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses. DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids. Alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life.

RNA

RNA

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation and expression of genes. RNA and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) are nucleic acids. Along with lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates, nucleic acids constitute one of the four major macromolecules essential for all known forms of life. Like DNA, RNA is assembled as a chain of nucleotides, but unlike DNA, RNA is found in nature as a single strand folded onto itself, rather than a paired double strand. Cellular organisms use messenger RNA (mRNA) to convey genetic information that directs synthesis of specific proteins. Many viruses encode their genetic information using an RNA genome.

Cell (biology)

Cell (biology)

The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life forms. Every cell consists of a cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, and contains many biomolecules such as proteins, DNA and RNA, as well as many small molecules of nutrients and metabolites. The term comes from the Latin word cellula meaning 'small room'.

Genome

Genome

In the fields of molecular biology and genetics, a genome is all the genetic information of an organism. It consists of nucleotide sequences of DNA. The nuclear genome includes protein-coding genes and non-coding genes, other functional regions of the genome such as regulatory sequences, and often a substantial fraction of 'junk' DNA with no evident function. Almost all eukaryotes have mitochondria and a small mitochondrial genome. Algae and plants also contain chloroplasts with a chloroplast genome.

Gene expression

Gene expression

Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product that enables it to produce end products, protein or non-coding RNA, and ultimately affect a phenotype, as the final effect. These products are often proteins, but in non-protein-coding genes such as transfer RNA (tRNA) and small nuclear RNA (snRNA), the product is a functional non-coding RNA. Gene expression is summarized in the central dogma of molecular biology first formulated by Francis Crick in 1958, further developed in his 1970 article, and expanded by the subsequent discoveries of reverse transcription and RNA replication.

Vector (molecular biology)

Vector (molecular biology)

In molecular cloning, a vector is any particle used as a vehicle to artificially carry a foreign nucleic sequence – usually DNA – into another cell, where it can be replicated and/or expressed. A vector containing foreign DNA is termed recombinant DNA. The four major types of vectors are plasmids, viral vectors, cosmids, and artificial chromosomes. Of these, the most commonly used vectors are plasmids. Common to all engineered vectors have an origin of replication, a multicloning site, and a selectable marker.

Transgene

Transgene

A transgene is a gene that has been transferred naturally, or by any of a number of genetic engineering techniques, from one organism to another. The introduction of a transgene, in a process known as transgenesis, has the potential to change the phenotype of an organism. Transgene describes a segment of DNA containing a gene sequence that has been isolated from one organism and is introduced into a different organism. This non-native segment of DNA may either retain the ability to produce RNA or protein in the transgenic organism or alter the normal function of the transgenic organism's genetic code. In general, the DNA is incorporated into the organism's germ line. For example, in higher vertebrates this can be accomplished by injecting the foreign DNA into the nucleus of a fertilized ovum. This technique is routinely used to introduce human disease genes or other genes of interest into strains of laboratory mice to study the function or pathology involved with that particular gene.

Eukaryote

Eukaryote

Eukaryota, whose members are known as eukaryotes, is a diverse domain of organisms whose cells have a nucleus. All animals, plants, fungi, and many unicellular organisms, are eukaryotes. They belong to the group of organisms Eukaryota or Eukarya, which is one of the three domains of life. Bacteria and Archaea make up the other two domains.

Germline

Germline

In biology and genetics, the germline is the population of a multicellular organism's cells that pass on their genetic material to the progeny (offspring). In other words, they are the cells that form the egg, sperm and the fertilised egg. They are usually differentiated to perform this function and segregated in a specific place away from other bodily cells.

Offspring

Offspring

In biology, offspring are the young creation of living organisms, produced either by a single organism or, in the case of sexual reproduction, two organisms. Collective offspring may be known as a brood or progeny in a more general way. This can refer to a set of simultaneous offspring, such as the chicks hatched from one clutch of eggs, or to all the offspring, as with the honeybee.

Somatic (biology)

Somatic (biology)

In cellular biology, the term somatic is often used to refer to the cells of the body, in contrast to the reproductive (germline) cells, which usually give rise to the egg or sperm. These somatic cells are diploid, containing two copies of each chromosome, whereas germ cells are haploid, as they only contain one copy of each chromosome. Although under normal circumstances all somatic cells in an organism contain identical DNA, they develop a variety of tissue-specific characteristics. This process is called differentiation, through epigenetic and regulatory alterations. The grouping of similar cells and tissues creates the foundation for organs.

Gene therapy

Gene therapy

Gene therapy is a medical field which focuses on the genetic modification of cells to produce a therapeutic effect or the treatment of disease by repairing or reconstructing defective genetic material. The first attempt at modifying human DNA was performed in 1980, by Martin Cline, but the first successful nuclear gene transfer in humans, approved by the National Institutes of Health, was performed in May 1989. The first therapeutic use of gene transfer as well as the first direct insertion of human DNA into the nuclear genome was performed by French Anderson in a trial starting in September 1990. It is thought to be able to cure many genetic disorders or treat them over time.

History

Viral based vectors emerged in the 1980s as a tool for transgene expression. In 1983, Albert Siegel described the use of viral vectors in plant transgene expression although viral manipulation via cDNA cloning was not yet available.[7] The first virus to be used as a vaccine vector was the vaccinia virus in 1984 as a way to protect chimpanzees against hepatitis B.[8] Non-viral gene delivery was first reported on in 1943 by Avery et al. who showed cellular phenotype change via exogenous DNA exposure.[9]

Methods

Bacterial transformation involves moving a gene from one bacteria to another. It is integrated into the recipients plasmid. and can then be expressed by the new host.
Bacterial transformation involves moving a gene from one bacteria to another. It is integrated into the recipients plasmid. and can then be expressed by the new host.

There are a variety of methods available to deliver genes to host cells. When genes are delivered to bacteria or plants the process is called transformation and when it is used to deliver genes to animals it is called transfection. This is because transformation has a different meaning in relation to animals, indicating progression to a cancerous state.[10] For some bacteria no external methods are need to introduce genes as they are naturally able to take up foreign DNA.[11] Most cells require some sort of intervention to make the cell membrane permeable to DNA and allow the DNA to be stably inserted into the hosts genome.

Chemical

Chemical based methods of gene delivery can use natural or synthetic compounds to form particles that facilitate the transfer of genes into cells.[2] These synthetic vectors have the ability to electrostatically bind DNA or RNA and compact the genetic information to accommodate larger genetic transfers.[5] Chemical vectors usually enter cells by endocytosis and can protect genetic material from degradation.[6]

Heat shock

One of the simplest method involves altering the environment of the cell and then stressing it by giving it a heat shock. Typically the cells are incubated in a solution containing divalent cations (often calcium chloride) under cold conditions, before being exposed to a heat pulse. Calcium chloride partially disrupts the cell membrane, which allows the recombinant DNA to enter the host cell. It is suggested that exposing the cells to divalent cations in cold condition may change or weaken the cell surface structure, making it more permeable to DNA. The heat-pulse is thought to create a thermal imbalance across the cell membrane, which forces the DNA to enter the cells through either cell pores or the damaged cell wall.

Calcium phosphate

Another simple methods involves using calcium phosphate to bind the DNA and then exposing it to cultured cells. The solution, along with the DNA, is encapsulated by the cells and a small amount of DNA can be integrated into the genome.[12]

Liposomes and polymers

Liposomes and polymers can be used as vectors to deliver DNA into cells. Positively charged liposomes bind with the negatively charged DNA, while polymers can be designed that interact with DNA.[2] They form lipoplexes and polyplexes respectively, which are then up-taken by the cells.[13] The two systems can also be combined.[6] Polymer-based non-viral vectors uses polymers to interact with DNA and form polyplexes.[6]

Nanoparticles

The use of engineered inorganic and organic nanoparticles is another non-viral approach for gene delivery.[14][15]

Physical

Artificial gene delivery can be mediated by physical methods which uses force to introduce genetic material through the cell membrane.[2]

Electroporation

Electroporators can be used to make the cell membrane permeable to DNA
Electroporators can be used to make the cell membrane permeable to DNA

Electroporation is a method of promoting competence. Cells are briefly shocked with an electric field of 10-20 kV/cm, which is thought to create holes in the cell membrane through which the plasmid DNA may enter. After the electric shock, the holes are rapidly closed by the cell's membrane-repair mechanisms.

Biolistics

A gene gun uses biolistics to insert DNA into cells
A gene gun uses biolistics to insert DNA into cells

Another method used to transform plant cells is biolistics, where particles of gold or tungsten are coated with DNA and then shot into young plant cells or plant embryos.[16] Some genetic material enters the cells and transforms them. This method can be used on plants that are not susceptible to Agrobacterium infection and also allows transformation of plant plastids. Plants cells can also be transformed using electroporation, which uses an electric shock to make the cell membrane permeable to plasmid DNA. Due to the damage caused to the cells and DNA the transformation efficiency of biolistics and electroporation is lower than agrobacterial transformation.[17]

Microinjection

Microinjection is where DNA is injected through the cell's nuclear envelope directly into the nucleus.[11]

Sonoporation

Sonoporation is the transient permeation of cell membranes assisted by ultrasound, typically in the presence of gas microbubbles.[18] Sonoporation allows for the entry of genetic material into cells.[19][20]

Photoporation

Photoporation is when laser pulses are used to create pores in a cell membrane to allow entry of genetic material.

Magnetofection

Magnetofection uses magnetic particles complexed with DNA and an external magnetic field concentrate nucleic acid particles into target cells.

Hydroporation

A hydrodynamic capillary effect can be used to manipulate cell permeability.

Agrobacterium

A. tumefaciens attaching itself to a carrot cell
A. tumefaciens attaching itself to a carrot cell

In plants the DNA is often inserted using Agrobacterium-mediated recombination,[21] taking advantage of the Agrobacteriums T-DNA sequence that allows natural insertion of genetic material into plant cells.[22] Plant tissue are cut into small pieces and soaked in a fluid containing suspended Agrobacterium. The bacteria will attach to many of the plant cells exposed by the cuts. The bacteria uses conjugation to transfer a DNA segment called T-DNA from its plasmid into the plant. The transferred DNA is piloted to the plant cell nucleus and integrated into the host plants genomic DNA.The plasmid T-DNA is integrated semi-randomly into the genome of the host cell.[23]

By modifying the plasmid to express the gene of interest, researchers can insert their chosen gene stably into the plants genome. The only essential parts of the T-DNA are its two small (25 base pair) border repeats, at least one of which is needed for plant transformation.[24][25] The genes to be introduced into the plant are cloned into a plant transformation vector that contains the T-DNA region of the plasmid. An alternative method is agroinfiltration.[26][27]

Viral delivery

Foreign DNA being transduced into the host cell through an adenovirus vector.
Foreign DNA being transduced into the host cell through an adenovirus vector.

Virus mediated gene delivery utilizes the ability of a virus to inject its DNA inside a host cell and takes advantage of the virus' own ability to replicate and implement their own genetic material. Viral methods of gene delivery are more likely to induce an immune response, but they have high efficiency.[6] Transduction is the process that describes virus-mediated insertion of DNA into the host cell. Viruses are a particularly effective form of gene delivery because the structure of the virus prevents degradation via lysosomes of the DNA it is delivering to the nucleus of the host cell.[28] In gene therapy a gene that is intended for delivery is packaged into a replication-deficient viral particle to form a viral vector.[29] Viruses used for gene therapy to date include retrovirus, adenovirus, adeno-associated virus and herpes simplex virus. However, there are drawbacks to using viruses to deliver genes into cells. Viruses can only deliver very small pieces of DNA into the cells, it is labor-intensive and there are risks of random insertion sites, cytopathic effects and mutagenesis.[30]

Viral vector based gene delivery uses a viral vector to deliver genetic material to the host cell. This is done by using a virus that contains the desired gene and removing the part of the viruses genome that is infectious.[2] Viruses are efficient at delivering genetic material to the host cell's nucleus, which is vital for replication.[2]

RNA-based viral vectors

RNA-based viruses were developed because of the ability to transcribe directly from infectious RNA transcripts. RNA vectors are quickly expressed and expressed in the targeted form since no processing is required [source needed]. Retroviral vectors include oncoretroviral, lentiviral and human foamy virus are RNA-based viral vectors that reverse transcript and integrated into the host genome, permits long-term transgene expression .[2]

DNA-based viral vectors

DNA-based viral vectors include Adenoviridae, adeno-associated virus and herpes simplex virus.[2]

Discover more about Methods related topics

Transfection

Transfection

Transfection is the process of deliberately introducing naked or purified nucleic acids into eukaryotic cells. It may also refer to other methods and cell types, although other terms are often preferred: "transformation" is typically used to describe non-viral DNA transfer in bacteria and non-animal eukaryotic cells, including plant cells. In animal cells, transfection is the preferred term as transformation is also used to refer to progression to a cancerous state (carcinogenesis) in these cells. Transduction is often used to describe virus-mediated gene transfer into eukaryotic cells.

Malignant transformation

Malignant transformation

Malignant transformation is the process by which cells acquire the properties of cancer. This may occur as a primary process in normal tissue, or secondarily as malignant degeneration of a previously existing benign tumor.

Genome

Genome

In the fields of molecular biology and genetics, a genome is all the genetic information of an organism. It consists of nucleotide sequences of DNA. The nuclear genome includes protein-coding genes and non-coding genes, other functional regions of the genome such as regulatory sequences, and often a substantial fraction of 'junk' DNA with no evident function. Almost all eukaryotes have mitochondria and a small mitochondrial genome. Algae and plants also contain chloroplasts with a chloroplast genome.

Endocytosis

Endocytosis

Endocytosis is a cellular process in which substances are brought into the cell. The material to be internalized is surrounded by an area of cell membrane, which then buds off inside the cell to form a vesicle containing the ingested material. Endocytosis includes pinocytosis and phagocytosis. It is a form of active transport.

Calcium chloride

Calcium chloride

Calcium chloride is an inorganic compound, a salt with the chemical formula CaCl2. It is a white crystalline solid at room temperature, and it is highly soluble in water. It can be created by neutralising hydrochloric acid with calcium hydroxide.

Calcium phosphate

Calcium phosphate

The term calcium phosphate refers to a family of materials and minerals containing calcium ions (Ca2+) together with inorganic phosphate anions. Some so-called calcium phosphates contain oxide and hydroxide as well. Calcium phosphates are white solids of nutritious value and are found in many living organisms, e.g., bone mineral and tooth enamel. In milk, it exists in a colloidal form in micelles bound to casein protein with magnesium, zinc, and citrate–collectively referred to as colloidal calcium phosphate (CCP). Various calcium phosphate minerals are used in the production of phosphoric acid and fertilizers. Overuse of certain forms of calcium phosphate can lead to nutrient-containing surface runoff and subsequent adverse effects upon receiving waters such as algal blooms and eutrophication (over-enrichment with nutrients and minerals).

Cell encapsulation

Cell encapsulation

Cell encapsulation is a possible solution to graft rejection in tissue engineering applications. Cell microencapsulation technology involves immobilization of cells within a polymeric semi-permeable membrane. It permits the bidirectional diffusion of molecules such as the influx of oxygen, nutrients, growth factors etc. essential for cell metabolism and the outward diffusion of waste products and therapeutic proteins. At the same time, the semi-permeable nature of the membrane prevents immune cells and antibodies from destroying the encapsulated cells, regarding them as foreign invaders.

Liposome

Liposome

A liposome is a small artificial vesicle, spherical in shape, having at least one lipid bilayer. Due to their hydrophobicity and/or hydrophilicity, biocompatibility, particle size and many other properties, liposomes can be used as drug delivery vehicles for administration of pharmaceutical drugs and nutrients, such as lipid nanoparticles in mRNA vaccines, and DNA vaccines. Liposomes can be prepared by disrupting biological membranes.

Polymer

Polymer

A polymer is a substance or material consisting of very large molecules called macromolecules, composed of many repeating subunits. Due to their broad spectrum of properties, both synthetic and natural polymers play essential and ubiquitous roles in everyday life. Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure and function. Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small molecules, known as monomers. Their consequently large molecular mass, relative to small molecule compounds, produces unique physical properties including toughness, high elasticity, viscoelasticity, and a tendency to form amorphous and semicrystalline structures rather than crystals.

Nanoparticle

Nanoparticle

A nanoparticle or ultrafine particle is usually defined as a particle of matter that is between 1 and 100 nanometres (nm) in diameter. The term is sometimes used for larger particles, up to 500 nm, or fibers and tubes that are less than 100 nm in only two directions. At the lowest range, metal particles smaller than 1 nm are usually called atom clusters instead.

Electroporation

Electroporation

Electroporation, or electropermeabilization, is a microbiology technique in which an electrical field is applied to cells in order to increase the permeability of the cell membrane, allowing chemicals, drugs, electrode arrays or DNA to be introduced into the cell. In microbiology, the process of electroporation is often used to transform bacteria, yeast, or plant protoplasts by introducing new coding DNA. If bacteria and plasmids are mixed together, the plasmids can be transferred into the bacteria after electroporation, though depending on what is being transferred, cell-penetrating peptides or CellSqueeze could also be used. Electroporation works by passing thousands of volts across suspended cells in an electroporation cuvette. Afterwards, the cells have to be handled carefully until they have had a chance to divide, producing new cells that contain reproduced plasmids. This process is approximately ten times more effective in increasing cell membrane's permeability than chemical transformation.

Electric field

Electric field

An electric field is the physical field that surrounds electrically charged particles and exerts force on all other charged particles in the field, either attracting or repelling them. It also refers to the physical field for a system of charged particles. Electric fields originate from electric charges and time-varying electric currents. Electric fields and magnetic fields are both manifestations of the electromagnetic field, one of the four fundamental interactions of nature.

Applications

Gene therapy

Main article: Gene therapy

Several of the methods used to facilitate gene delivery have applications for therapeutic purposes. Gene therapy utilizes gene delivery to deliver genetic material with the goal of treating a disease or condition in the cell. Gene delivery in therapeutic settings utilizes non-immunogenic vectors capable of cell specificity that can deliver an adequate amount of transgene expression to cause the desired effect.[3]

Advances in genomics have enabled a variety of new methods and gene targets to be identified for possible applications. DNA microarrays used in a variety of next-gen sequencing can identify thousands of genes simultaneously, with analytical software looking at gene expression patterns, and orthologous genes in model species to identify function.[31] This has allowed a variety of possible vectors to be identified for use in gene therapy. As a method for creating a new class of vaccine, gene delivery has been utilized to generate a hybrid biosynthetic vector to deliver a possible vaccine. This vector overcomes traditional barriers to gene delivery by combining E. coli with a synthetic polymer to create a vector that maintains plasmid DNA while having an increased ability to avoid degradation by target cell lysosomes.[32]

Discover more about Applications related topics

Gene therapy

Gene therapy

Gene therapy is a medical field which focuses on the genetic modification of cells to produce a therapeutic effect or the treatment of disease by repairing or reconstructing defective genetic material. The first attempt at modifying human DNA was performed in 1980, by Martin Cline, but the first successful nuclear gene transfer in humans, approved by the National Institutes of Health, was performed in May 1989. The first therapeutic use of gene transfer as well as the first direct insertion of human DNA into the nuclear genome was performed by French Anderson in a trial starting in September 1990. It is thought to be able to cure many genetic disorders or treat them over time.

Immunogenicity

Immunogenicity

Immunogenicity is the ability of a foreign substance, such as an antigen, to provoke an immune response in the body of a human or other animal. It may be wanted or unwanted:Wanted immunogenicity typically relates to vaccines, where the injection of an antigen provokes an immune response against the pathogen, protecting the organism from future exposure. Immunogenicity is a central aspect of vaccine development. Unwanted immunogenicity is an immune response by an organism against a therapeutic antigen. This reaction leads to production of anti-drug-antibodies (ADAs), inactivating the therapeutic effects of the treatment and potentially inducing adverse effects.

Genomics

Genomics

Genomics is an interdisciplinary field of biology focusing on the structure, function, evolution, mapping, and editing of genomes. A genome is an organism's complete set of DNA, including all of its genes as well as its hierarchical, three-dimensional structural configuration. In contrast to genetics, which refers to the study of individual genes and their roles in inheritance, genomics aims at the collective characterization and quantification of all of an organism's genes, their interrelations and influence on the organism. Genes may direct the production of proteins with the assistance of enzymes and messenger molecules. In turn, proteins make up body structures such as organs and tissues as well as control chemical reactions and carry signals between cells. Genomics also involves the sequencing and analysis of genomes through uses of high throughput DNA sequencing and bioinformatics to assemble and analyze the function and structure of entire genomes. Advances in genomics have triggered a revolution in discovery-based research and systems biology to facilitate understanding of even the most complex biological systems such as the brain.

DNA microarray

DNA microarray

A DNA microarray is a collection of microscopic DNA spots attached to a solid surface. Scientists use DNA microarrays to measure the expression levels of large numbers of genes simultaneously or to genotype multiple regions of a genome. Each DNA spot contains picomoles of a specific DNA sequence, known as probes. These can be a short section of a gene or other DNA element that are used to hybridize a cDNA or cRNA sample under high-stringency conditions. Probe-target hybridization is usually detected and quantified by detection of fluorophore-, silver-, or chemiluminescence-labeled targets to determine relative abundance of nucleic acid sequences in the target. The original nucleic acid arrays were macro arrays approximately 9 cm × 12 cm and the first computerized image based analysis was published in 1981. It was invented by Patrick O. Brown. An example of its application is in SNPs arrays for polymorphisms in cardiovascular diseases, cancer, pathogens and GWAS analysis. It is also used for the identification of structural variations and the measurement of gene expression.

Model organism

Model organism

A model organism is a non-human species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in the model organism will provide insight into the workings of other organisms. Model organisms are widely used to research human disease when human experimentation would be unfeasible or unethical. This strategy is made possible by the common descent of all living organisms, and the conservation of metabolic and developmental pathways and genetic material over the course of evolution.

Hybrid vehicle

Hybrid vehicle

A hybrid vehicle is one that uses two or more distinct types of power, such as submarines that use diesel when surfaced and batteries when submerged. Other means to store energy include pressurized fluid in hydraulic hybrids.

Source: "Gene delivery", Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, (2023, January 28th), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_delivery.

Enjoying Wikiz?

Enjoying Wikiz?

Get our FREE extension now!

Download Extension

Further Reading

Plasmid

Tumor suppressor gene

Expression vector

Transformation (genetics)

Agrobacterium tumefaciens

Agrobacterium

Transduction (genetics)

Transfer DNA

Gene gun

Ti plasmid

Vectors in gene therapy

Genetic engineering techniques

Intracellular delivery
See also
References
  1. ^ Jones CH, Chen CK, Ravikrishnan A, Rane S, Pfeifer BA (November 2013). "Overcoming nonviral gene delivery barriers: perspective and future". Molecular Pharmaceutics. 10 (11): 4082–98. doi:10.1021/mp400467x. PMC 5232591. PMID 24093932.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i Kamimura K, Suda T, Zhang G, Liu D (October 2011). "Advances in Gene Delivery Systems". Pharmaceutical Medicine. 25 (5): 293–306. doi:10.1007/bf03256872. PMC 3245684. PMID 22200988.
  3. ^ a b Mali S (January 2013). "Delivery systems for gene therapy". Indian Journal of Human Genetics. 19 (1): 3–8. doi:10.4103/0971-6866.112870. PMC 3722627. PMID 23901186.
  4. ^ Gibson G, Muse SV (2009). A Primer of Genome Science (Third ed.). 23 Plumtree Rd, Sunderland, MA 01375: Sinauer Associates. pp. 304–305. ISBN 978-0-87893-236-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  5. ^ a b Pack DW, Hoffman AS, Pun S, Stayton PS (July 2005). "Design and development of polymers for gene delivery". Nature Reviews. Drug Discovery. 4 (7): 581–93. doi:10.1038/nrd1775. PMID 16052241. S2CID 20972049.
  6. ^ a b c d e f Nayerossadat N, Maedeh T, Ali PA (6 July 2012). "Viral and nonviral delivery systems for gene delivery". Advanced Biomedical Research. 1: 27. doi:10.4103/2277-9175.98152. PMC 3507026. PMID 23210086.
  7. ^ Yusibov V, Shivprasad S, Turpen TH, Dawson W, Koprowski H (1999). "Plant viral vectors based on tobamoviruses". Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. 240: 81–94. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-60234-4_4. ISBN 978-3-540-66265-5. PMID 10394716.
  8. ^ Moss B, Smith GL, Gerin JL, Purcell RH (September 1984). "Live recombinant vaccinia virus protects chimpanzees against hepatitis B". Nature. 311 (5981): 67–9. Bibcode:1984Natur.311...67M. doi:10.1038/311067a0. PMID 6472464. S2CID 4358204.
  9. ^ Avery OT, MacLeod CM, McCarty M (2017). Die Entdeckung der Doppelhelix. Klassische Texte der Wissenschaft (in German). Springer Spektrum, Berlin, Heidelberg. pp. 97–120. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-47150-0_2. ISBN 9783662471494. S2CID 52805314.
  10. ^ Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell. New York: Garland Science. p. G:35. ISBN 978-0-8153-4072-0.
  11. ^ a b Chen I, Dubnau D (March 2004). "DNA uptake during bacterial transformation". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 2 (3): 241–9. doi:10.1038/nrmicro844. PMID 15083159. S2CID 205499369.
  12. ^ "Lecture 8 genetic engineering of animal cells". www.slideshare.net. 2012-01-25. Retrieved 2018-07-18.
  13. ^ Biocyclopedia.com. "Gene transfer (transfection) methods in animals | Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Gene Transfer Methods and Transgenic Organisms | Genetics, Biotechnology, Molecular Biology, Botany | Biocyclopedia.com". biocyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-07-18.
  14. ^ Yin, Feng; Gu, Bobo; Lin, Yining; Panwar, Nishtha; Tjin, Swee Chuan; Qu, Junle; Lau, Shu Ping; Yong, Ken-Tye (15 September 2017). "Functionalized 2D nanomaterials for gene delivery applications". Coordination Chemistry Reviews. 347: 77. doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2017.06.024. hdl:10397/95016.
  15. ^ Singh BN, Prateeksha, Gupta VK, Chen J, Atanasov AG. Organic Nanoparticle-Based Combinatory Approaches for Gene Therapy. Trends Biotechnol. 2017 Dec;35(12):1121–1124. doi: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2017.07.010.
  16. ^ Head G, Hull RH, Tzotzos GT (2009). Genetically Modified Plants: Assessing Safety and Managing Risk. London: Academic Pr. p. 244. ISBN 978-0-12-374106-6.
  17. ^ Hwang, HH; Yu, M; Lai, EM (2017). "Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation: biology and applications". Arabidopsis Book. 15: e0186. doi:10.1199/tab.0186. PMC 6501860. PMID 31068763.
  18. ^ Postema M, Kotopoulis S, Delalande A, Gilja OH (2012). "Sonoporation: why microbubbles create pores". Ultraschall in der Medizin. 33 (1): 97–98. doi:10.1055/s-0031-1274749.
  19. ^ Delalande A, Postema M, Mignet N, Midoux P, Pichon C (2012). "Ultrasound and microbubble-assisted gene delivery: recent advances and ongoing challenges". Therapeutic Delivery. 3 (10): 1199–1215. doi:10.4155/TDE.12.100. PMID 23116012. S2CID 20924113.
  20. ^ Delalande A, Kotopoulis S, Postema M, Midoux P, Pichon C (2013). "Sonoporation: mechanistic insights and ongoing challenges for gene transfer". Gene. 525 (2): 191–199. doi:10.1016/j.gene.2013.03.095. PMID 23566843.
  21. ^ National Research Council (US) Committee on Identifying and Assessing Unintended Effects of Genetically Engineered Foods on Human Health (2004-01-01). Methods and Mechanisms for Genetic Manipulation of Plants, Animals, and Microorganisms. National Academies Press (US).
  22. ^ Gelvin SB (March 2003). "Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation: the biology behind the "gene-jockeying" tool". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 67 (1): 16–37, table of contents. doi:10.1128/MMBR.67.1.16-37.2003. PMC 150518. PMID 12626681.
  23. ^ Francis KE, Spiker S (February 2005). "Identification of Arabidopsis thaliana transformants without selection reveals a high occurrence of silenced T-DNA integrations". The Plant Journal. 41 (3): 464–77. doi:10.1111/j.1365-313x.2004.02312.x. PMID 15659104.
  24. ^ Schell J, Van Montagu M (1977). "The Ti-Plasmid of Agrobacterium Tumefaciens, A Natural Vector for the Introduction of NIF Genes in Plants?". In Hollaender A, Burris RH, Day PR, Hardy RW, Helinski DR, Lamborg MR, Owens L, Valentine RC (eds.). Genetic Engineering for Nitrogen Fixation. Basic Life Sciences. Vol. 9. pp. 159–79. doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-0880-5_12. ISBN 978-1-4684-0882-9. PMID 336023.
  25. ^ Joos H, Timmerman B, Montagu MV, Schell J (1983). "Genetic analysis of transfer and stabilization of Agrobacterium DNA in plant cells". The EMBO Journal. 2 (12): 2151–60. doi:10.1002/j.1460-2075.1983.tb01716.x. PMC 555427. PMID 16453483.
  26. ^ Thomson JA. "Genetic Engineering of Plants" (PDF). Biotechnology. 3. Retrieved 17 July 2016.
  27. ^ Leuzinger K, Dent M, Hurtado J, Stahnke J, Lai H, Zhou X, Chen Q (July 2013). "Efficient agroinfiltration of plants for high-level transient expression of recombinant proteins". Journal of Visualized Experiments. 77 (77). doi:10.3791/50521. PMC 3846102. PMID 23913006.
  28. ^ Wivel NA, Wilson JM (June 1998). "Methods of gene delivery". Hematology/Oncology Clinics of North America. 12 (3): 483–501. doi:10.1016/s0889-8588(05)70004-6. PMID 9684094.
  29. ^ Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky SL, et al. (2000). Molecular Cell Biology (Fourth ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. pp. Section 6.3, Viruses: Structure, Function, and Uses. ISBN 9780716737063.
  30. ^ Keles E, Song Y, Du D, Dong WJ, Lin Y (August 2016). "Recent progress in nanomaterials for gene delivery applications". Biomaterials Science. 4 (9): 1291–309. doi:10.1039/C6BM00441E. PMID 27480033.
  31. ^ Guyon I, Weston J, Barnhill S, Vapnik V (2002). "Gene Selection for Cancer Classification using Support Vector Machines". Machine Learning. 46: 389–422. doi:10.1023/A:1012487302797.
  32. ^ Jones CH, Ravikrishnan A, Chen M, Reddinger R, Kamal Ahmadi M, Rane S, Hakansson AP, Pfeifer BA (August 2014). "Hybrid biosynthetic gene therapy vector development and dual engineering capacity". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 111 (34): 12360–5. Bibcode:2014PNAS..11112360J. doi:10.1073/pnas.1411355111. PMC 4151754. PMID 25114239.
Further reading
External links
Categories

The content of this page is based on the Wikipedia article written by contributors..
The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike Licence & the media files are available under their respective licenses; additional terms may apply.
By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use & Privacy Policy.
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization & is not affiliated to WikiZ.com.