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Gasoline direct injection

From Wikipedia, in a visual modern way
GDI engine from a BMW car (fuel injector is located above the red triangle)
GDI engine from a BMW car (fuel injector is located above the red triangle)

Gasoline direct injection (GDI), also known as petrol direct injection (PDI),[1] is a mixture formation system for internal combustion engines that run on gasoline (petrol), where fuel is injected into the combustion chamber. This is distinct from manifold injection systems, which inject fuel into the intake manifold (inlet manifold).

The use of GDI can help increase engine efficiency and specific power output as well as reduce exhaust emissions.[2]

The first GDI engine to reach production was introduced in 1925 for a low-compression truck engine. Several German cars used a Bosch mechanical GDI system in the 1950s, however usage of the technology remained rare until an electronic GDI system was introduced in 1996 by Mitsubishi for mass-produced cars. GDI has seen rapid adoption by the automotive industry in recent years, increasing in the United States from 2.3% of production for model year 2008 vehicles to approximately 50% for model year 2016.[3][4]

Discover more about Gasoline direct injection related topics

Internal combustion engine

Internal combustion engine

An internal combustion engine is a heat engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine. The force is typically applied to pistons, turbine blades, a rotor, or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into kinetic energy which is used to propel, move or power whatever the engine is attached to. This replaced the external combustion engine for applications where the weight or size of an engine were more important.

Gasoline

Gasoline

Gasoline or petrol is a transparent, petroleum-derived flammable liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in most spark-ignited internal combustion engines. It consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum, enhanced with a variety of additives. On average, U.S. refineries produce, from a barrel of crude oil, about 19 to 20 gallons of gasoline; 11 to 13 gallons of distillate fuel ; and 3 to 4 gallons of jet fuel. The product ratio depends on the processing in an oil refinery and the crude oil assay. A barrel of oil is defined as holding 42 US gallons, which is about 159 liters or 35 imperial gallons.

Fuel injection

Fuel injection

Fuel injection is the introduction of fuel in an internal combustion engine, most commonly automotive engines, by the means of an injector. This article focuses on fuel injection in reciprocating piston and Wankel rotary engines.

Combustion chamber

Combustion chamber

A combustion chamber is part of an internal combustion engine in which the fuel/air mix is burned. For steam engines, the term has also been used for an extension of the firebox which is used to allow a more complete combustion process.

Manifold injection

Manifold injection

Manifold injection is a mixture formation system for internal combustion engines with external mixture formation. It is commonly used in engines with spark ignition that use petrol as fuel, such as the Otto engine, and the Wankel engine. In a manifold-injected engine, the fuel is injected into the intake manifold, where it begins forming a combustible air-fuel mixture with the air. As soon as the intake valve opens, the piston starts sucking in the still forming mixture. Usually, this mixture is relatively homogeneous, and, at least in production engines for passenger cars, approximately stoichiometric; this means that there is an even distribution of fuel and air across the combustion chamber, and enough, but not more air present than what is required for the fuel's complete combustion. The injection timing and measuring of the fuel amount can be controlled either mechanically, or electronically. Since the 1970s and 1980s, manifold injection has been replacing carburettors in passenger cars. However, since the late 1990s, car manufacturers have started using petrol direct injection, which caused a decline in manifold injection installation in newly produced cars.

Inlet manifold

Inlet manifold

In automotive engineering, an inlet manifold or intake manifold is the part of an engine that supplies the fuel/air mixture to the cylinders. The word manifold comes from the Old English word manigfeald and refers to the multiplying of one (pipe) into many.

Operating principle

Charge modes

The 'charge mode' of a direct-injected engine refers to how the fuel is distributed throughout the combustion chamber:

  • 'Homogeneous charge mode' has the fuel mixed evenly with the air throughout the combustion chamber, as per manifold injection.
  • Stratified charge mode has a zone with a higher density of fuel around the spark plug, and a leaner mixture (lower density of fuel) further away from the spark plug.

Homogeneous charge mode

In the homogeneous charge mode, the engine operates on a homogeneous air/fuel mixture (), meaning, that there is an (almost) perfect mixture of fuel and air in the cylinder. The fuel is injected at the very beginning of the intake stroke in order to give injected fuel the most time to mix with the air, so that a homogeneous air/fuel mixture is formed.[5] This mode allows using a conventional three-way catalyst for exhaust gas treatment.[6]

Compared with manifold injection, the fuel efficiency is only very slightly increased, but the specific power output is better,[7] which is why the homogeneous mode is useful for so-called engine downsizing.[6] Most direct-injected passenger car petrol engines use the homogeneous charge mode.[8][9]

Stratified charge mode

The stratified charge mode creates a small zone of fuel/air mixture around the spark plug, which is surrounded by air in the rest of the cylinder. This results in less fuel being injected into the cylinder, leading to very high overall air-fuel ratios of ,[10] with mean air-fuel ratios of at medium load, and at full load.[11] Ideally, the throttle valve remains open as much as possible to avoid throttling losses. The torque is then set solely by means of quality torque controlling, meaning that only the amount of injected fuel, but not the amount of intake air is manipulated in order to set the engine's torque. Stratified charge mode also keeps the flame away from the cylinder walls, reducing the thermal losses.[12]

Since mixtures too lean cannot be ignited with a spark-plug (due to a lack of fuel), the charge needs to be stratified (e. g. a small zone of fuel/air mixture around the spark plug needs to be created).[13] To achieve such a charge, a stratified charge engine injects the fuel during the latter stages of the compression stroke. A "swirl cavity" in the top of the piston is often used to direct the fuel into the zone surrounding the spark plug. This technique enables the use of ultra-lean mixtures that would be impossible with carburetors or conventional manifold fuel injection.[14]

The stratified charge mode (also called "ultra lean-burn" mode) is used at low loads, in order to reduce fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. However, the stratified charge mode is disabled for higher loads, with the engine switching to the homogeneous mode with a stoichiometric air-fuel ratio of for moderate loads and a richer air-fuel ratio at higher loads.[15]

In theory, a stratified charge mode can further improve fuel efficiency and reduce exhaust emissions,[16] however, in practice, the stratified charge concept has not proved to have significant efficiency advantages over a conventional homogeneous charge concept, but due to its inherent lean burn, more nitrogen oxides are formed,[17] which sometimes require a NOx adsorber in the exhaust system to meet emissions regulations.[18] The use of NOx adsorbers can require low sulphur fuels, since sulphur prevents NOx adsorbers from functioning properly.[19] GDI engines with stratified fuel injection can also produce higher quantities of particulate matter than manifold injected engines,[20] sometimes requiring particulate filters in the exhaust (similar to a diesel particulate filter) in order to meet vehicle emissions regulations.[21] Therefore several European car manufacturers have abandoned the stratified charge concept or never used it in the first place, such as the 2000 Renault 2.0 IDE petrol engine (F5R), which never came with a stratified charge mode,[22] or the 2009 BMW N55 and 2017 Mercedes-Benz M256 engines dropping the stratified charge mode used by their predecessors. The Volkswagen Group had used fuel stratified injection in naturally aspirated engines labelled FSI, however, these engines have received an engine control unit update to disable the stratified charge mode.[23] Turbocharged Volkswagen engines labelled TFSI and TSI have always used the homogeneous mode.[24] Like the latter VW engines, newer direct injected petrol engines (from 2017 onwards) usually also use the more conventional homogeneous charge mode, in conjunction with variable valve timing, to obtain good efficiency. Stratified charge concepts have mostly been abandoned.[25]

Injection modes

Common techniques for creating the desired distribution of fuel throughout the combustion chamber are either spray-guided, air-guided, or wall-guided injection. The trend in recent years is towards spray-guided injection, since it currently results in a higher fuel efficiency.

Wall-guided direct injection

Swirl cavity on the top of a piston in the 2010-2017 Ford EcoBoost 3.5 L engine
Swirl cavity on the top of a piston in the 2010-2017 Ford EcoBoost 3.5 L engine

In engines with wall-guided injection, the distance between spark plug and injection nozzle is relatively high. In order to get the fuel close to the spark plug, it is sprayed against a swirl cavity on top of the piston (as seen in the picture of the Ford EcoBoost engine on the right), which guides the fuel towards the spark plug. Special swirl or tumble air intake ports aid this process. The injection timing depends upon the piston speed, therefore, at higher piston speeds, the injection timing, and ignition timing need to be advanced very precisely. At low engine temperatures, some parts of the fuel on the relatively cold piston cool down so much, that they cannot combust properly. When switching from low engine load to medium engine load (and thus advancing the injection timing), some parts of the fuel can end up getting injected behind the swirl cavity, also resulting in incomplete combustion.[26] Engines with wall-guided direct injection can therefore suffer from high hydrocarbon emissions.[27]

Air-guided direct injection

Like in engines with wall-guided injection, in engines with air-guided injection, the distance between spark plug and injection nozzle is relatively high. However, unlike in wall-guided injection engines, the fuel does not get in contact with (relatively) cold engine parts such as cylinder wall and piston. Instead of spraying the fuel against a swirl cavity, in air-guided injection engines the fuel is guided towards the spark plug solely by the intake air. The intake air must therefore have a special swirl or tumble movement in order to direct the fuel towards the spark plug. This swirl or tumble movement must be retained for a relatively long period of time, so that all of the fuel is getting pushed towards the spark plug. This however reduces the engine's charging efficiency and thus power output. In practice, a combination of air-guided and wall-guided injection is used.[28] There exists only one engine that only relies on air-guided injection.[29]

Spray-guided direct injection

In engines with spray-guided direct injection, the distance between spark plug and injection nozzle is relatively low. Both the injection nozzle and spark plug are located in between the cylinder's valves. The fuel is injected during the latter stages of the compression stroke, causing very quick (and inhomogeneous) mixture formation. This results in large fuel stratification gradients, meaning that there is a cloud of fuel with a very low air ratio in its centre, and a very high air ratio at its edges. The fuel can only be ignited in between these two "zones". Ignition takes place almost immediately after injection to increase engine efficiency. The spark plug must be placed in such a way, that it is exactly in the zone where the mixture is ignitable. This means that the production tolerances need to be very low, because only very little misalignment can result in drastic combustion decline. Also, the fuel cools down the spark plug, immediately before it is exposed to combustion heat. Thus, the spark plug needs to be able to withstand thermal shocks very well.[30] At low piston (and engine) speeds, the relative air/fuel velocity is low, which can cause fuel to not vaporise properly, resulting in a very rich mixture. Rich mixtures do not combust properly, and cause carbon build-up.[31] At high piston speeds, fuel gets spread further within the cylinder, which can force the ignitable parts of the mixture so far away from the spark plug, that it cannot ignite the air/fuel mixture anymore.[32]

Companion technologies

Other devices which are used to complement GDI in creating a stratified charge include variable valve timing, variable valve lift, and variable length intake manifold.[33] Also, exhaust gas recirculation can be used to reduce the high nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions that can result from the ultra lean combustion.[34]

Disadvantages

Gasoline direct injection does not have the valve cleaning action that is provided when fuel is introduced to the engine upstream of the cylinder.[35] In non-GDI engines, the gasoline traveling through the intake port acts as a cleaning agent for contamination, such as atomized oil. The lack of a cleaning action can cause increased carbon deposits in GDI engines. Third party manufacturers sell oil catch tanks which are supposed to prevent or reduce those carbon deposits.

The ability to produce peak power at high engine speeds (RPM) is more limited for GDI, since there is a shorter period of time available to inject the required quantity of fuel. In manifold injection (as well as carburetors and throttle-body fuel injection), fuel can be added to the intake air mixture at any time. However a GDI engine is limited to injecting fuel during the intake and compression phases. This becomes a restriction at high engine speeds (RPM), when the duration of each combustion cycle is shorter. To overcome this limitation, some GDI engines (such as the Toyota 2GR-FSE V6 and Volkswagen EA888 I4 engines) also have a set of manifold fuel injectors to provide additional fuel at high RPM. These manifold fuel injectors also assist in cleaning carbon deposits from the intake system.

Gasoline does not provide the same level of lubrication for the injector components as diesel, which sometimes becomes a limiting factor in the injection pressures used by GDI engines. The injection pressure of a GDI engine is typically limited to approximately 20 MPa (2.9 ksi), to prevent excessive wear on the injectors.[36]

Adverse climate and health impacts

While this technology is credited with boosting fuel efficiency and reducing CO2 emissions, GDI engines produce more black carbon aerosols than traditional port fuel injection engines. A strong absorber of solar radiation, black carbon possesses significant climate-warming properties.[37]

In a study published in January 2020 in the journal Environmental Science and Technology, a team of researchers at the University of Georgia (USA) predicted that the increase in black carbon emissions from GDI-powered vehicles will increase climate warming in urban areas of the U.S. by an amount that significantly exceeds the cooling associated with a reduction in CO2. The researchers also believe the shift from traditional port fuel injection (PFI) engines to the use of GDI technology will nearly double the premature mortality rate associated with vehicle emissions, from 855 deaths annually in the United States to 1,599. They estimate the annual social cost of these premature deaths at $5.95 billion.[38]

Discover more about Operating principle related topics

Stratified charge engine

Stratified charge engine

A stratified charge engine describes a certain type of internal combustion engine, usually spark ignition (SI) engine that can be used in trucks, automobiles, portable and stationary equipment. The term "stratified charge" refers to the working fluids and fuel vapors entering the cylinder. Usually the fuel is injected into the cylinder or enters as a fuel rich vapor where a spark or other means are used to initiate ignition where the fuel rich zone interacts with the air to promote complete combustion. A stratified charge can allow for slightly higher compression ratios without "knock," and leaner air/fuel ratio than in conventional internal combustion engines.

Fuel efficiency

Fuel efficiency

Fuel efficiency is a form of thermal efficiency, meaning the ratio of effort to result of a process that converts chemical potential energy contained in a carrier (fuel) into kinetic energy or work. Overall fuel efficiency may vary per device, which in turn may vary per application, and this spectrum of variance is often illustrated as a continuous energy profile. Non-transportation applications, such as industry, benefit from increased fuel efficiency, especially fossil fuel power plants or industries dealing with combustion, such as ammonia production during the Haber process.

Engine downsizing

Engine downsizing

In the automotive industry, engine downsizing is the practice of utilizing smaller combustion engines over larger ones of the same power capacity when manufacturing vehicles. It is the result of car manufacturers attempting to provide more efficient vehicles that emit fewer emissions, often mandated by legislative standards. The term generally relates to traditional internal combustion engines powered by petrol or diesel.

Spark plug

Spark plug

A spark plug is a device for delivering electric current from an ignition system to the combustion chamber of a spark-ignition engine to ignite the compressed fuel/air mixture by an electric spark, while containing combustion pressure within the engine. A spark plug has a metal threaded shell, electrically isolated from a central electrode by a ceramic insulator. The central electrode, which may contain a resistor, is connected by a heavily insulated wire to the output terminal of an ignition coil or magneto. The spark plug's metal shell is screwed into the engine's cylinder head and thus electrically grounded. The central electrode protrudes through the porcelain insulator into the combustion chamber, forming one or more spark gaps between the inner end of the central electrode and usually one or more protuberances or structures attached to the inner end of the threaded shell and designated the side, earth, or ground electrode(s).

NOx adsorber

NOx adsorber

A NOx adsorber or NOx trap (also called Lean NOx trap, abbr. LNT) is a device that is used to reduce oxides of nitrogen (NO and NO2) emissions from a lean burn internal combustion engine by means of adsorption.

Diesel particulate filter

Diesel particulate filter

A diesel particulate filter (DPF) is a device designed to remove diesel particulate matter or soot from the exhaust gas of a diesel engine.

BMW N55

BMW N55

The BMW N55 is a turbocharged straight-six petrol engine that began production in 2009. The N55 replaced the BMW N54 engine and was introduced in the F07 5 Series Gran Turismo.

Mercedes-Benz M256 engine

Mercedes-Benz M256 engine

The Mercedes-Benz M256 engine is a turbocharged straight-six engine produced since 2017, when it was first introduced on the W222 S450. It replaces the previous M276 V6 engine, and is Mercedes' first straight-six engine since the M104 engine.

Hydrocarbon

Hydrocarbon

In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons are examples of group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons are generally colourless and hydrophobic; their odor is usually faint, and may be similar to that of gasoline or lighter fluid. They occur in a diverse range of molecular structures and phases: they can be gases, liquids, low melting solids or polymers.

Variable valve lift

Variable valve lift

Variable valve lift (VVL) is an automotive piston engine technology which varies the height a valve opens in order to improve performance, fuel economy or emissions. There are two main types of VVL: discrete, which employs fixed valve lift amounts, and continuous, which is able to vary the amount of lift. Continuous valve lift systems typically allow for the elimination of the throttle valve.

Exhaust gas recirculation

Exhaust gas recirculation

In internal combustion engines, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is a nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions reduction technique used in petrol/gasoline, diesel engines and some hydrogen engines. EGR works by recirculating a portion of an engine's exhaust gas back to the engine cylinders. The exhaust gas displaces atmospheric air and reduces O2 in the combustion chamber. Reducing the amount of oxygen reduces the amount of fuel that can burn in the cylinder thereby reducing peak in-cylinder temperatures. The actual amount of recirculated exhaust gas varies with the engine operating parameters.

Oil catch tank

Oil catch tank

An oil catch tank or oil catch can is a device that is fitted into the cam/crankcase ventilation system on a car. Installing an oil catch tank (can) aims to reduce the amount of oil vapors re-circulated into the intake of the engine.

History

1911-1912

One of the early inventors trying gasoline direct injection was Dr Archibald Low who gave his engine the misleading title of Forced Induction Engine whereas it was only the admission of the fuel that was forced. He revealed details of his prototype engine early in 1912,[39] and the design was further developed by the large scale engine builder F.E. Baker Ltd during 1912[40] and the results displayed on their stand at the Olympia Motor Cycle show in November 1912. The engine was a high compression four-stroke motorcycle engine, with the gasoline fuel separately pressurised to 1000psi and admitted into the cylinder 'at the moment of highest compression' by a small rotary valve, with simultaneous ignition by a spark plug and trembler coil allowing sparking to continue throughout the combustion phase. The fuel being injected was described as being in vapour phase having been heated by the engine cylinder. The pressure of the fuel was regulated at the fuel pump, and the amount of fuel admitted was controlled by mechanical means at the rotary admission valve. It seems this radical design wasn't taken further by F.E. Baker.

1916-1938

Although direct injection has only become commonly used in gasoline engines since 2000, diesel engines have used fuel directly injected into the combustion chamber (or a pre-combustion chamber) since the first successful prototype in 1894.

An early prototype of a GDI engine was built in Germany in 1916 for the Junkers airplane. The engine was initially designed as a diesel engine, however it switched to being designed for gasoline when the German ministry of war decreed that aircraft engines must run on either gasoline or benzene. Being a crankcase-compression two-stroke design, a misfire could destroy the engine, therefore Junkers developed a GDI system to prevent this issue. A demonstration of this protype engine to aviation officials was performed shortly before development ceased due to the end of World War I.[41]

The first direct injection engine to use gasoline (amongst other fuels) to reach production was the 1925-1947 Hesselman engine which was built in Sweden for trucks and buses.[42][43] As a hybrid between an Otto cycle and a Diesel cycle engine, it could be run on a variety of fuels including gasoline and fuel oils. The Hesselman engines used the ultra lean burn principle and injected the fuel at the end of the compression stroke and then ignited it with a spark plug. Due to its low compression ratio, the Hesselman engine could run on cheaper heavy fuel oils, however the incomplete combustion resulted in large amounts of smoke.

1939-1995

During World War II, most of the German aircraft engines used GDI, such as the BMW 801 radial engine, the German inverted V12 Daimler-Benz DB 601, DB 603 and DB 605 engines, and the similar-layout Junkers Jumo 210G, Jumo 211 and Jumo 213 inverted V12 engines. Allied aircraft engines that used GDI fuel injection systems were the Soviet Union Shvetsov ASh-82FNV radial engine and the American 54.9 litre displacement Wright R-3350 Duplex Cyclone 18-cylinder radial engine.

The German company Bosch had been developing a mechanical GDI system for cars since the 1930s[44] and in 1952 it was introduced on the two-stroke engines in the Goliath GP700 and Gutbrod Superior. This system was basically a high-pressure diesel direct-injection pump with an intake throttle valve set up. These engines gave good performance and had up to 30% less fuel consumption over the carburetor version, primarily under low engine loads.[44] An added benefit of the system was having a separate tank for the engine oil which was automatically added to the fuel mixture, obviating the need for owners to mix their own two-stroke fuel blend.[45] The 1955 Mercedes-Benz 300SL also used an early Bosch mechanical GDI system, therefore becoming the first four-stroke engine to use GDI. Up until the mid-2010s, most fuel-injected cars used manifold injection, making it quite unusual that these early cars used an arguably more advanced GDI system.

During the 1970s, the United States manufacturers American Motors Corporation and Ford developed prototype mechanical GDI systems called Straticharge and Programmed Combustion (PROCO) respectively.[46][47][48][49] Neither of these systems reached production.[50][51]

1997-present

The 1996 Japanese-market Mitsubishi Galant was the first mass-produced car to use a GDI engine, when a GDI version of the Mitsubishi 4G93 inline-four engine was introduced.[52][53] It was subsequently brought to Europe in 1997 in the Carisma.[54] It also developed the first six-cylinder GDI engine, the Mitsubishi 6G74 V6 engine, in 1997.[55] Mitsubishi applied this technology widely, producing over one million GDI engines in four families by 2001.[56] Although in use for many years, on 11 September 2001 MMC claimed a trademark for the acronym 'GDI'.[57] Several other Japanese and European manufacturers introduced GDI engines in the following years. The Mitsubishi GDI technology was also licensed by Peugeot, Citroën, Hyundai, Volvo and Volkswagen.[58][59][60][61][62][63][64]

The 2005 Toyota 2GR-FSE V6 engine was the first to combines both direct and indirect injection. The system (called "D4-S") uses two fuel injectors per cylinder: a traditional manifold fuel injector (low pressure) and a direct fuel injector (high-pressure) and is used in most Toyota engines.[65]

In Formula One racing, direct injection was made compulsory for the 2014 season, with regulation 5.10.2 stating: "There may only be one direct injector per cylinder and no injectors are permitted upstream of the intake valves or downstream of the exhaust valves."[66]

Discover more about History related topics

Archibald Low

Archibald Low

Archibald Montgomery Low developed the first powered drone aircraft. He was an English consulting engineer, research physicist and inventor, and author of more than 40 books.

F.E. Baker Ltd

F.E. Baker Ltd

F. E. Baker Ltd was a British motorcycle engine and cyclecar engine manufacturer based in the Precision Works, Moorsom Street, Birmingham, England. Founded in 1906 by Frank Edward Baker, the company produced motorcycle engines under the Precision trademark until 1919. Precision engines were used by a wide range of motorcycle manufacturers in the United Kingdom and in other parts of the Commonwealth and were also used in cyclecars. Many manufacturers used the 'Precision' trademark as part of their model names, and in 1912 there was a 'Precision' motorcycle sold in Australia, but it is unclear if this was manufactured by F.E. Baker or just permitted use of the trademark by a motorcycle manufacturer.

Diesel engine

Diesel engine

The diesel engine, named after Rudolf Diesel, is an internal combustion engine in which ignition of the fuel is caused by the elevated temperature of the air in the cylinder due to mechanical compression; thus, the diesel engine is called a compression-ignition engine. This contrasts with engines using spark plug-ignition of the air-fuel mixture, such as a petrol engine or a gas engine.

Junkers

Junkers

Junkers Flugzeug- und Motorenwerke AG more commonly Junkers [ˈjʊŋkɐs], was a major German aircraft and aircraft engine manufacturer. It was founded there in Dessau, Germany, in 1895 by Hugo Junkers, initially manufacturing boilers and radiators. During World War I and following the war, the company became famous for its pioneering all-metal aircraft. During World War II the company produced the German army's Luftwaffe planes, as well as piston and jet aircraft engines, albeit in the absence of its founder, who had been removed by the Nazis in 1934.

Hesselman engine

Hesselman engine

The Hesselman engine is a hybrid between a petrol engine and a Diesel engine. It was designed and introduced in 1925 by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman (1877-1957). It represented the first use of direct gasoline injection on a spark-ignition engine used to power a road going vehicle. Hesselman engines saw use in heavy trucks and buses in models produced in the 1920s and 1930s.

Otto cycle

Otto cycle

An Otto cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle that describes the functioning of a typical spark ignition piston engine. It is the thermodynamic cycle most commonly found in automobile engines.

Diesel cycle

Diesel cycle

The Diesel cycle is a combustion process of a reciprocating internal combustion engine. In it, fuel is ignited by heat generated during the compression of air in the combustion chamber, into which fuel is then injected. This is in contrast to igniting the fuel-air mixture with a spark plug as in the Otto cycle (four-stroke/petrol) engine. Diesel engines are used in aircraft, automobiles, power generation, diesel–electric locomotives, and both surface ships and submarines.

BMW 801

BMW 801

The BMW 801 was a powerful German 41.8-litre (2,550 cu in) air-cooled 14-cylinder-radial aircraft engine built by BMW and used in a number of German Luftwaffe aircraft of World War II. Production versions of the twin-row engine generated between 1,560 and 2,000 PS. It was the most produced radial engine of Germany in World War II with more than 61,000 built.

Daimler-Benz DB 601

Daimler-Benz DB 601

The Daimler-Benz DB 601 was a German aircraft engine built during World War II. It was a liquid-cooled inverted V12, and powered the Messerschmitt Bf 109, Messerschmitt Bf 110, and many others. Approximately 19,000 601's were produced before it was replaced by the improved Daimler-Benz DB 605 in 1942.

Junkers Jumo 210

Junkers Jumo 210

The Jumo 210 was Junkers Motoren's first production inverted V12 gasoline aircraft engine, first produced in the early 1930s. Depending on the version it produced between 610 and 730 PS and can be considered a counterpart of the Rolls-Royce Kestrel in many ways. Although originally intended to be used in almost all pre-war designs, rapid progress in aircraft design quickly relegated it to the small end of the power scale by the late 1930s. Almost all aircraft designs switched to the much larger Daimler-Benz DB 600, so the 210 was produced only for a short time before Junkers responded with a larger engine of their own, the Junkers Jumo 211.

Allies of World War II

Allies of World War II

The Allies, formally referred to as the United Nations from 1942, were an international military coalition formed during the Second World War (1939–1945) to oppose the Axis powers, led by Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, and Fascist Italy. Its principal members by the end of 1941 were the United Kingdom, United States, Soviet Union, and China.

Goliath GP700

Goliath GP700

The Goliath GP700 is a small automobile which was manufactured by the Bremen, Germany–based Borgward subsidiary Goliath-Werke Borgward & Co from 1950 to 1957. In 1955, the GP700 was joined by the larger-engined Goliath GP900 E. From 1951 to 1953, a coupé version, the Goliath GP700 Sport was offered. The Goliath was a revolutionary design, which in several important respects pointed the way for automobile development in the second half of the 20th century.

In two-stroke engines

There are additional benefits of GDI for two-stroke engines, relating to scavenging of the exhaust gases and lubrication of the crankcase.

The scavenging aspect is that most two-stroke engines have both the intake and exhaust valves open during the exhaust stroke, in order to improve the flushing of exhaust gases from the cylinder. This results in some of the fuel/air mixture entering the cylinder and then exiting the cylinder, unburned, through the exhaust port. With direct injection, only air (and usually some oil) comes from the crankcase, and fuel is not injected until the piston rises and all ports are closed.

Crankcase lubrication is achieved in two-stroke GDI engines by injecting oil into the crankcase, resulting in a lower oil consumption than the older method of injecting oil mixed with fuel into the crankcase.[67]

Two types of GDI are used in two-strokes: low-pressure air-assisted, and high-pressure. The low-pressure systems— as used on the 1992 Aprilia SR50 motor scooter— uses a crankshaft-driven air compressor to inject air into the cylinder head. A low-pressure injector then sprays fuel into the combustion chamber, where it vaporizes as it mixes with the compressed air. A high-pressure GDI system was developed by German company Ficht GmbH in the 1990s and introduced for marine engines by Outboard Marine Corporation (OMC) in 1997, in order to meet stricter emissions regulations. However, the engines had reliability problems and OMC declared bankruptcy in December 2000.[68][69] The Evinrude E-Tec is an improved version of the Ficht system, which was released in 2003[70] and won an EPA Clean Air Excellence Award in 2004.[71]


Envirofit International, an American non-profit organisation, has developed direct injection retrofit kits for two-stroke motorcycles (using technology developed by Orbital Corporation Limited) in a project to reduce air pollution in Southeast Asia.[72] The 100-million two-stroke taxis and motorcycles in Southeast Asia are a major cause of pollution for the region.[73][74]

Discover more about In two-stroke engines related topics

Two-stroke engine

Two-stroke engine

A two-stroke engine is a type of internal combustion engine that completes a power cycle with two strokes of the piston during one power cycle, this power cycle being completed in one revolution of the crankshaft. A four-stroke engine requires four strokes of the piston to complete a power cycle during two crankshaft revolutions. In a two-stroke engine, the end of the combustion stroke and the beginning of the compression stroke happen simultaneously, with the intake and exhaust functions occurring at the same time.

Scavenging (engine)

Scavenging (engine)

Scavenging is the process of replacing the exhaust gas in a cylinder of an internal combustion engine with the fresh air/fuel mixture for the next cycle. If scavenging is incomplete, the remaining exhaust gases can cause improper combustion for the next cycle, leading to reduced power output.

Aprilia SR50

Aprilia SR50

The Aprilia SR50 is a scooter built by Aprilia.

Outboard Marine Corporation

Outboard Marine Corporation

Outboard Marine Corporation (OMC) was a maker of Evinrude, Johnson and Gale Outboard Motors, and many different brands of boats. It was a multibillion-dollar Fortune 500 corporation. Evinrude began in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1907. OMC was based in Waukegan, Illinois. They also owned several lines of boats such as Chris Craft, Lowe Boats, Princecraft, Four Winns, SeaSwirl, Stratos, and Javelin. OMC was also a parent company to Ryan, which made lawn mowers.

Envirofit International

Envirofit International

Envirofit International is an American non-profit organization that develops technology for reducing air pollution and enhancing energy efficiency in developing nations.

Source: "Gasoline direct injection", Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, (2023, March 13th), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline_direct_injection.

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Further Reading

Compression ratio

Diesel engine

Fuel injection

Exhaust gas recirculation

Back-fire

Glow plug (diesel engine)

Two-stroke diesel engine

Hesselman engine

M-System
See also
References
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