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Figure skating

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Figure skating
2020-01-11 Ice Dance Rhythm Dance (2020 Winter Youth Olympics) by Sandro Halank–0220.jpg
Ice dancers
Highest governing bodyInternational Skating Union
NicknamesSkating
Characteristics
Team membersIndividuals, duos, or groups
Mixed-sexYes
EquipmentFigure skates
GlossaryGlossary of figure skating terms
Presence
OlympicPart of the Summer Olympics in 1908 and 1920;
Part of the first Winter Olympics in 1924 to today

Figure skating is a sport in which individuals, pairs, or groups perform on figure skates on ice. It was the first winter sport to be included in the Olympic Games, when contested at the 1908 Olympics in London.[1] The Olympic disciplines are men's singles, women's singles,[note 1] pair skating, and ice dance; the four individual disciplines are also combined into a team event, first included in the Winter Olympics in 2014. The non-Olympic disciplines include synchronized skating, Theater on Ice, and four skating. From intermediate through senior-level competition, skaters generally perform two programs (the short program and the free skate), which, depending on the discipline, may include spins, jumps, moves in the field, lifts, throw jumps, death spirals, and other elements or moves.

Figure skaters compete at various levels from beginner up to the Olympic level (senior) at local, regional, sectional, national, and international competitions. The International Skating Union (ISU) regulates international figure skating judging and competitions. These include the Winter Olympics, the World Championships, the World Junior Championships, the European Championships, the Four Continents Championships, the Grand Prix series (senior and junior), and the ISU Challenger Series.

The sport is also associated with show business. Major competitions generally conclude with exhibition galas, in which the top skaters from each discipline perform non-competitive programs. Many skaters, both during and after their competitive careers, also skate in ice shows, which run during the competitive season and the off-season.

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Figure skate

Figure skate

Figure skates are a type of ice skate used by figure skaters. The skates consist of a boot and a blade that is attached with screws to the sole of the boot. Inexpensive sets for recreational skaters are available, but most figure skaters purchase boots and blades separately and have the blades mounted by a professional skate technician.

Figure skating at the 1908 Summer Olympics

Figure skating at the 1908 Summer Olympics

Four figure skating events were contested at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, but they were held in October 1908, six months after most of the other Olympic events at the 1908 Games. The figure skating competition took place at the Prince's Skating Club, in the district of Knightsbridge. It was the first time that a winter sport had ever been included in the Olympic Games, sixteen years before the first Winter Olympics in Chamonix. The number of competitors was very low, with two events having only three entrants, guaranteeing a medal for participation.

2014 Winter Olympics

2014 Winter Olympics

The 2014 Winter Olympics, officially called the XXII Olympic Winter Games and commonly known as Sochi 2014, was an international winter multi-sport event that was held from 7 to 23 February 2014 in Sochi, Russia. Opening rounds in certain events were held on 6 February 2014, the day before the opening ceremony.

Four skating

Four skating

Four skating is a figure skating and artistic roller skating discipline. Fours teams consist of two women and two men. The sport is similar to pair skating, with elements including overhead lifts, twist lifts, death spirals, and throw jumps, as well as the elements of single skating in unison, pairs elements in unison and unique elements that involve all four skaters. Fours is not an Olympic event and is rarely competed. It was discontinued from the Canadian Figure Skating Championships following the 1996-1997 season.

Free skating

Free skating

The free skating segment of figure skating, also called the free skate and the long program, is the second of two segments of competitions, skated after the short program. Its duration, across all disciplines, is four minutes for senior skaters and teams, and three and one-half minutes for junior skaters and teams. Vocal music with lyrics is allowed for all disciplines since the 2014—2015 season. The free skating program, across all disciplines, must be well-balanced and include certain elements described and published by the International Skating Union (ISU).

Figure skating spins

Figure skating spins

Spins are an element in figure skating in which the skater rotates, centered on a single point on the ice, while holding one or more body positions. They are performed by all disciplines of the sport, single skating, pair skating, and ice dance, and are a required element in most figure skating competitions. As The New York Times says, "While jumps look like sport, spins look more like art. While jumps provide the suspense, spins provide the scenery, but there is so much more to the scenery than most viewers have time or means to grasp". According to world champion and figure skating commentator Scott Hamilton, spins are often used "as breathing points or transitions to bigger things"

Figure skating jumps

Figure skating jumps

Figure skating jumps are an element of three competitive figure skating disciplines: men's singles, women's singles, and pair skating – but not ice dancing. Jumping in figure skating is "relatively recent". They were originally individual compulsory figures, and sometimes special figures; many jumps were named after the skaters who invented them or from the figures from which they were developed. It was not until the early part of the 20th century, well after the establishment of organized skating competitions, when jumps with the potential of being completed with multiple revolutions were invented and when jumps were formally categorized. In the 1920s Austrian skaters began to perform the first double jumps in practice. Skaters experimented with jumps, and by the end of the period, the modern repertoire of jumps had been developed. Jumps did not have a major role in free skating programs during international competitions until the 1930s. During the post-war period and into the 1950s and early 1960s, triple jumps became more common for both male and female skaters, and a full repertoire of two-revolution jumps had been fully developed. In the 1980s men were expected to complete four or five difficult triple jumps, and women had to perform the easier triples. By the 1990s, after compulsory figures were removed from competitions, multi-revolution jumps became more important in figure skating.

Figure skating lifts

Figure skating lifts

Figure skating lifts are required elements in two disciplines of figure skating, pair skating and ice dance. There are five groups of lifts in pair skating, categorized in order of increasing level of difficulty. Judges look for the following when evaluating pair lifts: speed of entry and exit; control of the woman's free leg when she is exiting out of the lift, with the goal of keeping the leg high and sweeping; the position of the woman in the air; the man's footwork; quick and easy changes of position; and the maintenance of flow throughout the lift. Twist lifts are "the most thrilling and exciting component in pair skating". They can also be the most difficult movement to perform correctly. They require more strength and coordination than many other pair elements, and are usually the first or second element in a program. According to the International Skating Union (ISU), "the Woman must be caught in the air at the waist by the Man prior to landing and be assisted to a smooth landing on the ice on a backward outside edge on one foot" during a twist lift. A pair lift and twist lift is required in the short program of pair skating; a well-balanced free skating program in pair skating must include lifts.

Death spiral (figure skating)

Death spiral (figure skating)

The death spiral is a figure skating term used to describe a spin involving two partners in the discipline of pair skating, in which one partner lowers the other partner while the partner getting close to the ice arches backward on one foot. It was created by German professional skater Charlotte Oelschlägel and her husband Curt Newmann in the 1920s. Suzanne Morrow and Wallace Diestelmeyer from Canada were the first pair team to perform the death spiral one-handed, at the 1948 Olympic Games. In the 1960s, Soviet pair team Liudmila Belousova and Oleg Protopopov created three death spirals: "the backward-inside, forward-inside and forward-outside death spirals, which they originally named the Cosmic Spiral, Life Spiral and Love Spiral, respectively". The International Skating Union (ISU), the governing body that oversees figure skating, allows for variations of arm holds and pivot positions. Senior pair skating teams must perform different types of death spirals in their short programs and free skating programs.

Figure skating at the Olympic Games

Figure skating at the Olympic Games

Figure skating was first contested in the Olympic Games at the 1908 Summer Olympics. Since 1924, the sport has been a part of the Winter Olympic Games.

European Figure Skating Championships

European Figure Skating Championships

The European Figure Skating Championships is an annual figure skating competition in which figure skaters compete for the title of European champion. Medals are awarded in the disciplines of men's singles, women's singles, pair skating, and ice dance. The event is sanctioned by the International Skating Union (ISU) and is the sport's oldest competition. The first European Championships was held in 1891 in Hamburg, Germany and featured one segment, compulsory figures, with seven competitors, all men from Germany and Austria. It has been, other than five periods, held continuously since 1891, and has been sanctioned by the ISU since 1893. Women were allowed to compete for the first time in 1930, which is also the first time pairs skating was added to the competition. Ice dance was added in 1954. Only eligible skaters from ISU member countries in Europe can compete, and skaters must have reached at least the age of 15 before July 1 preceding the competition. ISU member countries can submit 1-3 skaters to compete in the European Championships.

Four Continents Figure Skating Championships

Four Continents Figure Skating Championships

The Four Continents Figure Skating Championships (4CC) is an annual figure skating competition. The International Skating Union established it in 1999 to provide skaters representing non-European countries with a similar competition to the much older European Figure Skating Championships. The event's name refers to the Americas, Africa, Asia and Oceania. Medals are awarded in the disciplines of men's singles, women's singles, pairs, and ice dance.

Terminology

"Central Park, Winter: the Skating Pond", 1862 lithograph
"Central Park, Winter: the Skating Pond", 1862 lithograph

The term "professional" in skating refers not to skill level but competitive status. Figure skaters competing at the highest levels of international competition are not "professional" skaters. They are sometimes referred to as amateurs,[3] though some earn money. Professional skaters include those who have lost their ISU eligibility and those who perform only in shows. They may also include former Olympic and World champions who have ended their competitive career, as well as skaters with little or no international competitive experience. In addition to performing in ice shows, professional skaters often compete in professional competitions, which are held throughout the world, each with its own format and rules.[4]

In languages other than English, Japanese, Korean, Chinese, Italian, Polish and Russian, figure skating is usually referred to by a name that translates as "artistic skating".

Figure skates

Close-up of a figure skating blade, showing the toe picks, the hollow (groove) on the bottom of the blade, and screw attachment
Close-up of a figure skating blade, showing the toe picks, the hollow (groove) on the bottom of the blade, and screw attachment

The most visible difference to ice hockey skates is that figure skates have a set of large, jagged teeth called toe picks on the front part of the blade. These are used primarily in jumping and should not be used for stroking or spins. If used during a spin, the toe pick will cause the skater to lose momentum, or move away from the center of the spin. Blades are mounted to the sole and heel of the boot with screws. Typically, high-level figure skaters are professionally fitted for their boots and blades at a reputable skate shop. Professionals are also employed to sharpen blades to individual requirements.[5]

Blade sharpening
Blade sharpening
Figure skates and edges
Figure skates and edges

Blades are about 4.7 millimetres (316 inch) thick. When viewed from the side, the blade of a figure skate is not flat, but curved slightly, forming an arc of a circle with a radius of 180–220 centimetres (71–87 inches). This curvature is referred to as the rocker of the blade. The "sweet spot" is the part of the blade on which all spins are rotated; this is usually located near the stanchion of the blade, below the ball of the foot.[6] The blade is also "hollow ground"; a groove on the bottom of the blade creates two distinct edges, inside and outside. The inside edge of the blade is on the side closest to the skater; the outside edge of the blade is on the side farthest from the skater. In figure skating, it is always desirable to skate on only one edge of the blade. Skating on both at the same time (which is referred to as a flat) may result in lower skating skills scores. The apparently effortless power and glide across the ice exhibited by elite figure skaters fundamentally derives from efficient use of the edges to generate speed.

Skates used in singles and pair skating have a set of large, jagged teeth called a "toe pick" on the front of each blade. The toe picks are mainly used to help launch the skater into the air for the take-off when performing jumps. Ice dance blades have smaller toe picks than blades used for the other disciplines.

During a spin, skaters use the "sweet spot" of the blade, which is one of two rockers to be found on a blade and is the roundest portion of the blade. The sweet spot is located just behind the toe pick and near the middle of the blade. The other rocker is the more general curvature of the blade when stroking or gliding.

Ice dancers' blades are about an inch shorter in the rear than those used by skaters in other disciplines, to accommodate the intricate footwork and close partnering in dance. Dancers' blades also have a smaller toe pick as they do not require the large toe pick used for jumping in the other disciplines. Hard plastic skate guards are used when the skater must walk in his or her skates when not on the ice, to protect the blade from dirt or material on the ground that may dull the blade. Soft blade covers called soakers are used to absorb condensation and protect the blades from rust when the skates are not being worn. In competition, skaters are allowed three minutes to make repairs to their skates.

There are many different types of boots and blades to suit different disciplines and abilities. For example, athletes who are performing advanced multi-rotational jumps often need a stiffer boot that is higher and gives more support. Athletes working on single or double jumps require less support and may use a less stiff boot. Ice dancers may prefer a lower cut boot that is designed to enable more knee bend.

Likewise, blades designed for free and pairs skating have a longer tail to assist landing. The blade profile and picks are designed to assist with spinning and with jump entry, take-off, landing and exit. Modern blade technology increasingly uses carbon fibre and materials other than steel to make blades lighter. These materials may also be more flexible and help cushion jump landings and be protective of young athlete's joints.[7] Ice dance blades have short tails to enable close foot work and reduce the risk of blade clash in close complex moves. They may also be thinner to assist with glide and fast changes of edge.

Off-ice training is the term for physical conditioning that takes place off the ice. Besides regular physical exercise, skaters do walk-throughs of jumps off the ice to practice sufficient rotation and height of their jumps, and to practice consistency in landing on one foot. In 2020/2021 many athletes relied on a variety of off-ice training and conditioning methods due to rinks being closed due to COVID-19.

Discover more about Figure skates related topics

Figure skate

Figure skate

Figure skates are a type of ice skate used by figure skaters. The skates consist of a boot and a blade that is attached with screws to the sole of the boot. Inexpensive sets for recreational skaters are available, but most figure skaters purchase boots and blades separately and have the blades mounted by a professional skate technician.

Ice hockey

Ice hockey

Ice hockey is a team sport played on ice skates, usually on an ice skating rink with lines and markings specific to the sport. It belongs to a family of sports called hockey. In ice hockey, two opposing teams use ice hockey sticks to control, advance, and shoot a closed, vulcanized, rubber disc called a "puck" into the other team's goal. Each goal is worth one point. The team which scores the most goals is declared the winner. In a formal game, each team has six skaters on the ice at a time, barring any penalties, one of whom is the goaltender. Ice hockey is a full contact sport, and is considered to be one of the more physically demanding sports.

Radius

Radius

In classical geometry, a radius of a circle or sphere is any of the line segments from its center to its perimeter, and in more modern usage, it is also their length. The name comes from the latin radius, meaning ray but also the spoke of a chariot wheel. The plural of radius can be either radii or the conventional English plural radiuses. The typical abbreviation and mathematical variable name for radius is R or r. By extension, the diameter D is defined as twice the radius:

Stanchion

Stanchion

A stanchion is a sturdy upright fixture that provides support for some other object. It can be a permanent fixture.

Ice rinks and rink equipment

There is significant variation in the dimensions of ice rinks. Olympic-sized rinks have dimensions of 30 m × 60 m (98.4 ft × 197 ft), NHL-sized rinks are 26 m × 61 m (85 ft × 200 ft), while European rinks are sometimes 30 m × 64 m (98 ft × 210 ft).[8] The ISU prefers Olympic-sized rinks for figure skating competitions, particularly for major events. According to ISU rule 342, a figure skating rink for an ISU event "if possible, shall measure sixty (60) meters in one direction and thirty (30) meters in the other, but not larger, and not less than fifty-six (56) meters in one direction and twenty-six (26) meters in the other."[9] The scoring system rewards skaters who have good ice coverage, i.e. those who efficiently cover the entire ice surface during their programs. Olympic-sized rinks make the differences in skill between skaters more apparent but they are not available for all events. If a rink has different dimensions, a skater's jump setup and speed may be hindered as he or she adjusts.[10][11]

Ice quality is judged by smoothness, friction, hardness, and brittleness.[12] Factors affecting ice quality include temperature, water quality, and usage, with toe picks causing more deterioration. For figure skating, the ice surface temperature is normally maintained between −5.5 °C (22.1 °F) and −3.5 °C (25.7 °F),[12][13] with the Olympic disciplines requiring slightly softer ice (−3.5 °C) than synchronized skating (−5.5 °C).[14] Typically after every two warm-up groups, an ice resurfacer cleans and smooths the surface of the ice sheet. Inadequate ice quality may affect skaters' performances.[15]

Some rinks have a harness system installed to help skaters learn new jumps in a controlled manner. A heavy-duty cable is securely attached to two of the walls around the ice, with a set of pulleys riding on the cable. The skater wears a vest or belt, with a cable or rope attached to it, and the cable/rope is threaded through the movable pulley on the cable above. The coach holds the other end of the cable and lifts the skater by pulling the cable/rope. The skater can then practice the jump with the coach assisting the completion. This is used when a skater needs more help on a jump. However, if the coaches see fit, they could use another harness usually called "the fishing pole harness." It is named that because it looks similar to a fishing pole. The skater will put on the harness and the coach will adjust it so it fits the skater. The skater will go and do the jump with very little help from their coach. They can also do the jump on any pattern they choose, whereas, the other harness, they must do in a straight line.[16]

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Figure skating rink

Figure skating rink

A figure skating rink is an ice rink designed for figure skating. Alternatively it is used for other sports such as short track speed skating, ice hockey and bandy. It is usually rectangular.

National Hockey League

National Hockey League

The National Hockey League is a professional ice hockey league in North America comprising 32 teams—25 in the United States and 7 in Canada. It is considered to be the top ranked professional ice hockey league in the world, and is one of the four major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada. The Stanley Cup, the oldest professional sports trophy in North America, is awarded annually to the league playoff champion at the end of each season. The NHL is the fifth-wealthiest professional sport league in the world by revenue, after the National Football League (NFL), Major League Baseball (MLB), the National Basketball Association (NBA), and the English Premier League (EPL).

International Skating Union

International Skating Union

The International Skating Union (ISU) is the international governing body for competitive ice skating disciplines, including figure skating, synchronized skating, speed skating, and short track speed skating. It was founded in Scheveningen, Netherlands, in July 1892, making it one of the oldest international sport federations. The ISU was formed to establish standardized international rules and regulations for the skating disciplines it governs, and to organize international competitions in these disciplines. It is now based in Switzerland.

Ice resurfacer

Ice resurfacer

An ice resurfacer is a vehicle or hand-pushed device used to clean and smooth the surface of a sheet of ice, usually in an ice rink. The first ice resurfacer was developed by American inventor and engineer Frank Zamboni in 1949 in the city of Paramount, California. As such, an ice resurfacer is often referred to as a "Zamboni" as a genericized trademark.

Disciplines

Figure skating consists of the following disciplines:

  • In Single skating, male and female skaters compete individually. Figure skating is the oldest winter sport contested at the Olympics, with men's and women's single skating appearing as two of the four figure skating events at the London Games in 1908.[17] Single skating has required elements that skaters must perform during a competition and that make up a well-balanced skating program. They include jumps (and jump combinations), spins, step sequences, and choreographic sequences.[18]
  • Pair skating is defined as "the skating of two persons in unison who perform their movements in such harmony with each other as to give the impression of genuine Pair Skating as compared with independent Single Skating".[19] The ISU also states that a pairs team consists of "one Woman and one Man".[20] Pair skating, along with men's and women's single skating, has been an Olympic discipline since figure skating, the oldest Winter Olympic sport, was introduced at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London.[21] The ISU World Figure Skating Championships introduced pair skating in 1908.[22] Pair skating required elements include lifts, twist lifts, jumps and partner assisted jumps, pair spins, death spirals, step sequences, and choreographic sequences.[23] The elements performed by pairs teams must be "linked together by connecting steps of a different nature"[24] and by other comparable movements and with a variety of holds and positions.
  • Ice dance historically draws from ballroom dancing. It joined the World Figure Skating Championships in 1952, and became a Winter Olympic Games medal sport in 1976.[25] According to the ISU, an ice dance team consists of one woman and one man.[26] Ice dance has its roots in the "combined skating" developed in the 19th century by skating clubs and organizations and in recreational social skating.[27] The first national competitions occurred in England, Canada, the U.S., and Austria during the 1930s.[28] The first international ice dance competition took place as a special event at the World Championships in 1950 in London.[29] The elements ice dance teams must perform are the dance lift, the dance spin, the step sequence, twizzles, and choreographic elements.[30]
  • Synchronized skating (formerly known as "precision skating") is for mixed-gender groups of between twelve and twenty figure skaters. This discipline resembles a group form of ice dance, with additional emphasis on precise formations of the group as a whole and complex transitions between formations. The basic formations include wheels, blocks, lines, circles, and intersections. The close formations, and the need for the team to stay in unison, add to the difficulty of the footwork performed by the skaters in these elements. Formal proposals were put forward by the ISU to include synchronized skating in the 2022 Winter Olympics, but those efforts have been unsuccessful.[31][32]
  • Compulsory figures or school figures were formerly a discipline of figure skating, and gave the sport its name. They are the "circular patterns which skaters trace on the ice to demonstrate skill in placing clean turns evenly on round circles".[33] For approximately the first 50 years of figure skating as a sport, until 1947, compulsory figures made up 60 percent of the total score at most competitions around the world. These figures continued to dominate the sport, although they steadily declined in importance, until the ISU voted to discontinue them as a part of competitions in 1990.[34] Since 2015 with the founding of the World Figure Sport Society and the World Figure & Fancy Skating Championships & Festival on black ice more skaters are training and competing in figures.[35] More coaches are learning the new methods developed by World Figure Sport to teach them to skaters, as some skaters and coaches believe that figures give skaters an advantage in developing alignment, core strength, body control, and discipline.[36]

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Single skating

Single skating

Single skating is a discipline of figure skating in which male and female skaters compete individually. Men's singles and women's singles are governed by the International Skating Union (ISU). Figure skating is the oldest winter sport contested at the Olympics, with men's and women's single skating appearing as two of the four figure skating events at the London Games in 1908.

1908 Summer Olympics

1908 Summer Olympics

The 1908 Summer Olympics were an international multi-sport event held in London, England, United Kingdom, from 27 April to 31 October 1908. The 1908 Games were originally scheduled to be held in Rome, but were relocated on financial grounds following the violent eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 1906, which claimed over 100 lives; Rome eventually hosted the Games in 1960.

Figure skating jumps

Figure skating jumps

Figure skating jumps are an element of three competitive figure skating disciplines: men's singles, women's singles, and pair skating – but not ice dancing. Jumping in figure skating is "relatively recent". They were originally individual compulsory figures, and sometimes special figures; many jumps were named after the skaters who invented them or from the figures from which they were developed. It was not until the early part of the 20th century, well after the establishment of organized skating competitions, when jumps with the potential of being completed with multiple revolutions were invented and when jumps were formally categorized. In the 1920s Austrian skaters began to perform the first double jumps in practice. Skaters experimented with jumps, and by the end of the period, the modern repertoire of jumps had been developed. Jumps did not have a major role in free skating programs during international competitions until the 1930s. During the post-war period and into the 1950s and early 1960s, triple jumps became more common for both male and female skaters, and a full repertoire of two-revolution jumps had been fully developed. In the 1980s men were expected to complete four or five difficult triple jumps, and women had to perform the easier triples. By the 1990s, after compulsory figures were removed from competitions, multi-revolution jumps became more important in figure skating.

Figure skating spins

Figure skating spins

Spins are an element in figure skating in which the skater rotates, centered on a single point on the ice, while holding one or more body positions. They are performed by all disciplines of the sport, single skating, pair skating, and ice dance, and are a required element in most figure skating competitions. As The New York Times says, "While jumps look like sport, spins look more like art. While jumps provide the suspense, spins provide the scenery, but there is so much more to the scenery than most viewers have time or means to grasp". According to world champion and figure skating commentator Scott Hamilton, spins are often used "as breathing points or transitions to bigger things"

Choreographic sequence

Choreographic sequence

A choreographic sequence is a required element for figure skating in all international competitions. It is required in the free skating programs of senior and junior single skaters and in the free skating programs of senior pair skaters. It is also required during ice dancers' rhythm dances and free dances. Judges do not evaluate individual elements in a choreographic sequence; rather, they note that it was accomplished. Skaters must fulfill certain requirements to fulfill the highest points possible during choreographic sequences. There are six types of choreographic elements in ice dance: the Choreographic lift, the Choreographic spinning movement, the Choreographic assisted jump movement, the Choreographic twizzling movement, the Choreographic sliding movement, and the Choreographic character step sequence.

Pair skating

Pair skating

Pair skating is a figure skating discipline defined by the International Skating Union (ISU) as "the skating of two persons in unison who perform their movements in such harmony with each other as to give the impression of genuine Pair Skating as compared with independent Single Skating". The ISU also states that a pairs team consists of "one Woman and one Man". Pair skating, along with men's and women's single skating, has been an Olympic discipline since figure skating, the oldest Winter Olympic sport, was introduced at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London. The ISU World Figure Skating Championships introduced pair skating in 1908.

1908 World Figure Skating Championships

1908 World Figure Skating Championships

The World Figure Skating Championships is an annual figure skating competition sanctioned by the International Skating Union in which figure skaters compete for the title of World Champion.

Death spiral (figure skating)

Death spiral (figure skating)

The death spiral is a figure skating term used to describe a spin involving two partners in the discipline of pair skating, in which one partner lowers the other partner while the partner getting close to the ice arches backward on one foot. It was created by German professional skater Charlotte Oelschlägel and her husband Curt Newmann in the 1920s. Suzanne Morrow and Wallace Diestelmeyer from Canada were the first pair team to perform the death spiral one-handed, at the 1948 Olympic Games. In the 1960s, Soviet pair team Liudmila Belousova and Oleg Protopopov created three death spirals: "the backward-inside, forward-inside and forward-outside death spirals, which they originally named the Cosmic Spiral, Life Spiral and Love Spiral, respectively". The International Skating Union (ISU), the governing body that oversees figure skating, allows for variations of arm holds and pivot positions. Senior pair skating teams must perform different types of death spirals in their short programs and free skating programs.

Step sequence

Step sequence

A step sequence is a required element in all four disciplines of figure skating, men's single skating, women's single skating, pair skating, and ice dance. Step sequences have been defined as "steps and turns in a pattern on the ice". Skaters earn the most points in step sequences by performing steps and movements with "flair and personality", by turning in both directions, by using one foot and then the other, and by including up and down movements.

Ice dance

Ice dance

Ice dance is a discipline of figure skating that historically draws from ballroom dancing. It joined the World Figure Skating Championships in 1952, and became a Winter Olympic Games medal sport in 1976. According to the International Skating Union (ISU), the governing body of figure skating, an ice dance team consists of one woman and one man.

Winter Olympic Games

Winter Olympic Games

The Winter Olympic Games is a major international multi-sport event held once every four years for sports practiced on snow and ice. The first Winter Olympic Games, the 1924 Winter Olympics, were held in Chamonix, France. The modern Olympic Games were inspired by the ancient Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia, Greece, from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD. Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1894, leading to the first modern Summer Olympic Games in Athens, Greece in 1896. The IOC is the governing body of the Olympic Movement, with the Olympic Charter defining its structure and authority.

1950 World Figure Skating Championships

1950 World Figure Skating Championships

The World Figure Skating Championships is an annual figure skating competition sanctioned by the International Skating Union in which figure skaters compete for the title of World Champion.

Elements and moves

Each element receives a score according to its base value and grade of execution (GOE), resulting in a combined technical elements score (TES). At competitions, a technical specialist identifies the elements and assigns each one a level of difficulty, ranging from B (Basic) to Level 4 (most difficult).[37] For each element, a panel of judges determines the GOE, ranging between −5 and +5, according to how well the skater executes the element. The GOE is weighted according to the base value of the element.[37] Through the ISU guidelines skaters must perform a minimum of seven elements in their short program and twelve elements in their long program. [9]

The ISU defines a fall as a loss of control with the result that the majority of the skater's body weight is not on the blade but supported by hands, knees, or buttocks.[38]

Jumps

ISU abbreviations:
Jumps
T Toe loop
S Salchow
Lo Loop
F Flip
Lz Lutz
A Axel

Jumps involve the skater leaping into the air and rotating rapidly to land after completing one or more rotations. There are many types of jumps, identified by the way the skater takes off and lands, as well as by the number of rotations that are completed.

Each jump receives a score according to its base value and grade of execution (GOE).[37] Quality of execution, technique, height, speed, flow and ice coverage are considered by the judges. An under-rotated jump (indicated by  ) is "missing rotation of more than 14, but less than 12 revolution" and receives 70% of the base value. A downgraded jump (indicated by  ) is "missing rotation of 12 revolution or more". A downgraded triple is treated as a double jump, while a downgraded double is treated as a single jump.

An edge violation occurs when a skater executes a jump on the incorrect edge. The hollow is a groove on the bottom of the blade which creates two distinct edges, inside and outside. The inside edge of the blade is on the side closest to the skater, the outside edge is on the side farthest from the skater, and a flat refers to skating on both edges at the same time, which is discouraged. An unclear edge or edge violation is indicated with an 'e' and reflected in the GOE according to the severity of the problem. Flutz and lip are the colloquial terms for a Lutz and flip jump with an edge violation.

In 1982, the ISU enacted a rule stating that a skater may perform each type of triple only once in a program, or twice if one of them is incorporated into a combination or sequence. For a set of jumps to be considered a combination, each jump must take off from the landing edge of the previous jump, with no steps, turns, or change of edge between jumps. Toe loops and loops are commonly performed as the second or third jump in a combination because they take off from the back outside edge of the landing foot, or skating leg. To perform a salchow or flip on the back end of a combination, a half loop (which is actually a full rotation, but lands on a back inside edge of the landing leg) may be used as a connecting jump. In contrast, jump sequences are sets of jumps that may be linked by non-listed jumps or hops.[39] Sequences are worth 80% of the combined value of the same jumps executed in combination.

Video demonstrating basic figure skating jumps

A figure skater only needs to be able to jump in one direction, either clockwise or counter-clockwise. The vast majority of figure skaters prefer to rotate in a counter-clockwise direction when jumping. Thus, for clarity, all jumps will be described for a skater jumping counter-clockwise.

There are six jumps in figure skating that count as jump elements. All six are landed on one foot on the back outside edge (with counter-clockwise rotation, for single and multi-revolution jumps), but have different takeoffs, by which they may be distinguished. Jumps are divided into two different categories: toe jumps and edge jumps.

The number of rotations performed in the air determines whether the jump is a single, double, triple, or quadruple (commonly known as a "quad"). The simplest jump is a waltz jump, which can only be done in a half-leap and is not classified as a single, double, or triple jump. Senior-level male single skaters perform mostly triple and quadruple jumps in competition. The only quad not to have been accomplished by a skater in competition is the quadruple Axel, which involves four and a half rotations. This jump has been attempted in competition but has not been landed successfully. Triple jumps, other than the triple Axel, are commonly performed by female single skaters. It is rare for a female skater to land a quadruple jump, and very few female single skaters have been credited with quads in competition.

Some elite skaters can complete a jump in about one second, with 26 inches of height and 10 feet in distance. The takeoff speed of a jump can reach up to 15 mph. Prior to most jumps, a figure skater needs to skate backward to build power and speed.[40]

Toe jumps

Toe jumps are launched by digging the toe pick of one skate into the ice, using it to vault into the air with the opposite leg. The main toe jumps are (in order of score value):[41]

  1. Toe loop – the skater takes off backwards from the outside edge of the right (or left) foot, launching the jump using the opposite toe pick.
  2. Flip (sometimes known as a toe salchow) – the skater takes off backwards from the inside edge of the left (or right) foot and assists the take-off using the opposite toe pick.
  3. Lutz – similar to the flip, but the skater takes off from the backward outside edge of the left (or right) foot, launching the jump using the opposite toe pick.

All of the above descriptions assume a counter-clockwise direction of rotation, landing backwards on the outside edge of the right foot. (For clockwise rotation, the skater takes off using the alternative foot and lands backwards on the outside edge of the left foot.)

Edge jumps

An Axel jump
An Axel jump

Edge jumps use no toe assist, and include (in order of score value):

  1. Salchow – the skater takes off backwards from the inside edge of the left (or right) foot, allowing the edge to come round, the opposite leg helps to launch the jump into the air.
  2. Loop (also known as a Rittberger jump) – the skater takes off backwards from the outside edge of the right (or left) foot.
  3. Axel – the skater takes off forwards from the outside edge of the left (or right) foot. As this is the only rotating jump to take off from a forward edge, it includes an extra half rotation.

Again, these descriptions assume a counter-clockwise direction of rotation, landing backwards on the outside edge of the right foot. (For clockwise rotation, the skater takes off using the alternative foot and always lands backwards on the outside edge of the left foot.)

Other jumps

Several other jumps are usually performed only as single jumps and in elite skating are used as transitional movements or highlights in step sequences. These include the half toe loop (ballet jump), half loop, half flip, walley jump, waltz jump, inside Axel, one-foot Axel, stag jump, and split jump. There are two kinds of split jump:

  • Russian split, performed in a position that is similar to that of a straddle split
  • ladies split, performed in the position of the more traditional split, facing the direction of the front leg

Spins

Spins are an element in which the skater rotates, centered on a single point on the ice, while holding one or more body positions.[42] They are performed by all disciplines of the sport.[43] As The New York Times says, "While jumps look like sport, spins look more like art. While jumps provide the suspense, spins provide the scenery, but there is so much more to the scenery than most viewers have time or means to grasp".[44] According to world champion and figure skating commentator Scott Hamilton, spins are often used "as breathing points or transitions to bigger things"[44]

Figure skating spins, along with jumps, spirals, and spread eagles were originally individual compulsory figures, sometimes special figures. Unlike jumps, spins were a "graceful and appreciated"[45] part of figure skating throughout the 19th century. They advanced between World War I and World War II; by the late 1930s, all three basic spin positions were used.[45]

There are two types of spins, the forward spin and the backward spin.[46] There are three basic spin positions: the upright spin, the sit spin, and the camel spin. Skaters also perform flying spins and combination spins.[47]

Lifts

Pair skaters performing a one-arm overhead lift
Pair skaters performing a one-arm overhead lift

Figure skating lifts are required elements in pair skating and ice dance.[48] There are five groups of lifts in pair skating, categorized in order of increasing level of difficulty.[49] Judges look for the following when evaluating pair lifts: speed of entry and exit; control of the woman's free leg when she is exiting out of the lift, with the goal of keeping the leg high and sweeping; the position of the woman in the air; the man's footwork; quick and easy changes of position; and the maintenance of flow throughout the lift.[50] Twist lifts are "the most thrilling and exciting component in pair skating".[50] They can also be the most difficult movement to perform correctly.[51] They require more strength and coordination than many other pair elements, and are usually the first or second element in a program. According to the International Skating Union (ISU), "the Woman must be caught in the air at the waist by the Man prior to landing and be assisted to a smooth landing on the ice on a backward outside edge on one foot"[52] during a twist lift.

The ISU defines dance lifts as "a movement in which one of the partners is elevated with active and/or passive assistance of the other partner to any permitted height, sustained there and set down on the ice".[53] Dance lifts are delineated from pair lifts to ensure that ice dance and pair skating remain separate disciplines.[54] After the judging system changed from the 6.0 system to the ISU Judging System (IJS), dance lifts became more "athletic, dramatic and exciting".[55] There are two types of dance lifts: short lifts, which should be done in under seven seconds; and combination lifts, which should be done in under 12 seconds.[56] A well-balanced free dance program in ice dance must include dance lifts.[57]

Turns, steps, moves

Along with other forms of skating, figure skating is one of the only human powered activities where travelling backwards is integral to the discipline. The ability to skate well backwards and forwards are considered to be equally important, as is the ability to transition well between the two.[58][59]

Step sequences are a required element in all four Olympic disciplines. The pattern can be straight line, circular, or serpentine. The step sequence consists of a combination of turns, steps, hops and edge changes. Additionally, steps and turns can be used as transitions between elements. The various turns, which skaters can incorporate into step sequences, include:

Choctaws are the two-foot equivalents of rockers and counters. Other movements that may be incorporated into step sequences or used as connecting elements include lunges and spread eagles. An Ina Bauer is similar to a spread eagle performed with one knee bent and typically an arched back. Hydroblading refers to a deep edge performed with the body as low as possible to the ice in a near-horizontal position.

Moves in the field is a pre-determined required sequence that demonstrated basic skating skills and edge control. In the context of a competitive program, they include sequences that may include spirals, spread eagles, Ina Bauers, hydroblading, and similar extended edge moves, along with loops, twizzles, and different kinds of turns.

A spiral is an element in which the skater moves across the ice on a specific edge with the free leg held at hip level or above. Spirals are distinguished by the edge of the blade used (inside or outside), the direction of motion (forward or backward), and the skater's position. A spiral sequence is one or more spiral positions and edges done in sequence. Judges look at the depth, stability, and control of the skating edge, speed and ice coverage, extension, and other factors. Some skaters can change edges during a spiral, i.e. from inside to outside edge. Spirals performed on a "flat" are generally not considered as true spirals. Spiral sequences were required in women's and pair skating prior to the 2012–13 season,[60] but from the 2012–13 season onward, they were replaced by the choreographic sequence. The choreographic sequence consists of moves in the field, unlisted jumps, spinning movements, etc. and is required for the men's, women's and pair free program.[61][62][63]

A death spiral is a required element of pair skating. There are four varieties distinguished by the lady's edge and direction of motion. The man performs a pivot, one toe anchored in the ice, while holding the hand of his partner, who circles him on a deep edge with her body almost parallel to the ice. As of 2011, the woman's head must at some time reach her skating knee. The man must also be in a full pivot position and the death spiral must be held for a minimum amount of rotation, depending on the level.

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Glossary of figure skating terms

Glossary of figure skating terms

The following is a glossary of figure skating terms, sorted alphabetically.

Figure skating jumps

Figure skating jumps

Figure skating jumps are an element of three competitive figure skating disciplines: men's singles, women's singles, and pair skating – but not ice dancing. Jumping in figure skating is "relatively recent". They were originally individual compulsory figures, and sometimes special figures; many jumps were named after the skaters who invented them or from the figures from which they were developed. It was not until the early part of the 20th century, well after the establishment of organized skating competitions, when jumps with the potential of being completed with multiple revolutions were invented and when jumps were formally categorized. In the 1920s Austrian skaters began to perform the first double jumps in practice. Skaters experimented with jumps, and by the end of the period, the modern repertoire of jumps had been developed. Jumps did not have a major role in free skating programs during international competitions until the 1930s. During the post-war period and into the 1950s and early 1960s, triple jumps became more common for both male and female skaters, and a full repertoire of two-revolution jumps had been fully developed. In the 1980s men were expected to complete four or five difficult triple jumps, and women had to perform the easier triples. By the 1990s, after compulsory figures were removed from competitions, multi-revolution jumps became more important in figure skating.

Toe loop jump

Toe loop jump

The toe loop jump is the simplest jump in the sport of figure skating. It was invented in the 1920s by American professional figure skater Bruce Mapes. The toe loop is accomplished with a forward approach on the inside edge of the blade; the skater then switches to a backward-facing position before their takeoff, which is accomplished from the skater's right back outside edge and left toepick. The jump is exited from the back outside edge of the same foot. It is often added to more difficult jumps during combinations and is the most common second jump performed in combinations. It is also the most commonly attempted jump.

Salchow jump

Salchow jump

The Salchow jump is an edge jump in figure skating. It was named after its inventor, Ulrich Salchow, in 1909. The Salchow is accomplished with a takeoff from the back inside edge of one foot and a landing on the back outside edge of the opposite foot. It is "usually the first jump that skaters learn to double, and the first or second to triple". Timing is critical because both the takeoff and landing must be on the backward edge. A Salchow is deemed cheated if the skate blade starts to turn forward before the takeoff, or if it has not turned completely backward when the skater lands back on the ice.

Loop jump

Loop jump

The loop jump is an edge jump in the sport of figure skating. The skater executes it by taking off from the back outside edge of the skating foot, turning one rotation in the air, and landing on the back outside edge of the same foot. It is often performed as the second jump in a combination.

Flip jump

Flip jump

The flip jump is a figure skating jump.

Lutz jump

Lutz jump

The Lutz is a figure skating jump, named after Alois Lutz, an Austrian skater who performed it in 1913. It is a toepick-assisted jump with an entrance from a back outside edge and landing on the back outside edge of the opposite foot. It is the most difficult jump and the second-most famous jump after the Axel.

Axel jump

Axel jump

The Axel jump or Axel Paulsen jump, named after its inventor, Norwegian figure skater Axel Paulsen, is an edge jump performed in figure skating. It is the sport's oldest and most difficult jump, and the only basic jump in competition with a forward take-off, which makes it the easiest to identify. A double or triple Axel is required in both the short program and the free skating segment for junior and senior single skaters in all events sanctioned by the International Skating Union (ISU).

International Skating Union

International Skating Union

The International Skating Union (ISU) is the international governing body for competitive ice skating disciplines, including figure skating, synchronized skating, speed skating, and short track speed skating. It was founded in Scheveningen, Netherlands, in July 1892, making it one of the oldest international sport federations. The ISU was formed to establish standardized international rules and regulations for the skating disciplines it governs, and to organize international competitions in these disciplines. It is now based in Switzerland.

Quad (figure skating)

Quad (figure skating)

A quad, or quadruple, is a figure skating jump with at least four revolutions. All quadruple jumps have four revolutions, except for the quadruple Axel, which has four and a half revolutions. The quadruple toe loop and quadruple Salchow are the two most commonly performed quads. Quadruple jumps have become increasingly common among World and Olympic level men's single skaters, to the point that not performing a quad in a program has come to be seen as a severe handicap. This phenomenon is often referred to as the "quad revolution". Since 2018, quadruple jumps have also become an increasingly common feature of women's skating, although they are not allowed under the ISU rules in the ladies' short program. The first person to land a ratified quadruple jump in competition was Canadian Kurt Browning in 1988. Japanese skater Miki Ando became the first female to do so, in 2002.

Walley jump

Walley jump

A Walley jump is a full rotation jump in figure skating where the skater jumps off the backward inside edge, makes one full rotation in the air, and then lands on the backward outside edge of the same foot. For a counterclockwise jump, the takeoff and landing are on the right foot. The air position and landing of the Walley are similar to those for other figure skating jumps.

Competition format and scoring

Pair skaters performing crossovers
Pair skaters performing crossovers

The ISU is the governing body for international competitions in figure skating, including the World Championships and the figure skating events at the Winter Olympic Games. Medals are awarded for overall results; the standard medals are gold for first place, silver for second, and bronze for third place. U.S. Figure Skating also awards pewter medals for fourth-place finishers in national events. Additionally, at the World, European, Four Continents, and World Junior Championships, the ISU awards small medals for segment results (short and free program). A medal is generally attributed to only one country, even if a partnership is composed of skaters with different nationalities. A notable exception was the pair skating partnership between Ludowika Eilers and Walter Jakobsson; their 1910–11 medals were attributed to both Germany and Finland.[64] Beyond the early 20th century, no skaters have been allowed to represent two countries in the same competition.

In singles and pairs figure skating competition, competitors perform two programs: the short program, in which they complete a set of required elements consisting of jumps, spins and steps; and the free skate, also known as the long program, in which they have a slightly wider choice of elements. Under both the 6.0 system and the ISU Judging System, the judges consider the "complete package" when evaluating performances, i.e. the best jumper is not always placed first if the judges consider the difference in jumping execution to be outweighed by another skater's speed, spins, presentation, etc.[65][66]

Ice dance competitions formerly consisted of three phases: one or more compulsory dances; an original dance to a ballroom rhythm that was designated annually; and a free dance to music of the skaters' own choice. Beginning in the 2010–11 season, the compulsory and original dances were merged into the short dance, which itself was renamed the rhythm dance in June 2018, before the 2018–19 season.

6.0 System

Skating was formerly judged for "technical merit" (in the free skate), "required elements" (in the short program), and "presentation" (in both programs).[66] The marks for each program ran from 0.0 to 6.0, the latter being the highest. These marks were used to determine a preference ranking (or "ordinal") separately for each judge; the judges' preferences were then combined to determine placements for each skater in each program. The placements for the two programs were then combined, with the free skate placement weighted more heavily than the short program. The highest placing individual (based on the sum of the weighted placements) was declared the winner.[67]

ISU Judging System

In 2004, in response to the judging controversy during the 2002 Winter Olympics, the ISU adopted the International Judging System (IJS), which became mandatory at all international competitions in 2006, including the 2006 Winter Olympics. The new system is sometimes informally referred to as the Code of Points, however, the ISU has never used the term to describe their system in any of their official communications.

Under the IJS, points are awarded individually for each skating element, and the sum of these points is the total element score (TES). Competitive programs are constrained to include a set number of elements. Each element is judged first by a technical specialist who identifies the specific element and determines its base value. This is done using instant replay video to verify features that distinguish different elements; e.g. the exact foot position at take-off and landing of a jump. A panel of twelve judges then each award a mark for the quality and execution of the element. This mark, called the grade of execution (GOE), is an integer with a minimum value of −5 and a maximum value of +5.[37] The GOE mark is then translated into another value by using the table of values in ISU rule 322. The GOE value from the twelve judges is then processed with a computerized random selection of nine judges, the highest and lowest values are then discarded, and finally the average of the remaining seven is calculated. This average value is then added to (or subtracted from) the base value to determine the total value for the element.[68]

Note: The IJS previously used a GOE scale of −3 to +3[69] but this was changed for the 2018–19 season and is in the early stages of being tested in competitions.

The program components score (PCS) awards points to holistic aspects of a program or other nuances that are not rewarded in the total element score. The components are:[70]

  1. Skating skills (SS) reward use of edges and turns, flow over the ice surface, speed and acceleration, ice coverage, clean and controlled curves, multi-directional skating, and mastery of one-foot skating (no overuse of skating on two feet).
  2. Transitions (TR)
  3. Performance (PE)
  4. Composition (CO)
  5. Interpretation (IN)

A detailed description of each component is given in ISU rule 322.2. Judges award each component a raw mark from 0 to 10 in increments of 0.25, with a mark of 5 being defined as "average". For each separate component, the raw marks are then selected, trimmed, and averaged in a manner akin to determining a grade of execution. The trimmed mean scores are then translated into a factored mark by multiplying by a factor that depends on the discipline, competition segment, and level. Then the five (or four) factored marks are added to give the final PCS score.

The total element score and the program components score are added to give the total score for a competition segment (TSS). A skater's final placement is determined by the total of their scores in all segments of a competition. No ordinal rankings are used to determine the final results.

Other judging and competition

There are also skating competitions organized for professional skaters by independent promoters. These competitions use judging rules set by whoever organizes the competition. There is no "professional league". Well-known professional competitions in the past have included the World Professional Championships (held in Landover, Maryland), the Challenge Of Champions, the Canadian Professional Championships and the World Professional Championships (held in Jaca, Spain).

The Ice Skating Institute (ISI), an international ice rink trade organization, runs its own competitive and test program aimed at recreational skaters. Originally headquartered in Minnesota, the organization now operates out of Dallas, Texas. ISI competitions are open to any member that have registered their tests. There are very few "qualifying" competitions, although some districts hold Gold Competitions for that season's first-place winners. ISI competitions are especially popular in Asian countries that do not have established ISU member federations. The Gay Games have also included skating competitions for same-gender pairs and dance couples under ISI sponsorship. Other figure skating competitions for adults also attract participants from diverse cultures.

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Figure skating season

Figure skating season

The figure skating season is the period of time in which competitions are contested in the sport of figure skating. The skating season begins on July 1 of one year and lasts until June 30 of the next year, thus spanning a full 12 months. The seasons are referred to by the years they span; for example, the 2017–18 figure skating season began in July 2017 and ended in June 2018.

Figure skating competition

Figure skating competition

A figure skating competition is a judged sports competition in figure skating.

International Skating Union

International Skating Union

The International Skating Union (ISU) is the international governing body for competitive ice skating disciplines, including figure skating, synchronized skating, speed skating, and short track speed skating. It was founded in Scheveningen, Netherlands, in July 1892, making it one of the oldest international sport federations. The ISU was formed to establish standardized international rules and regulations for the skating disciplines it governs, and to organize international competitions in these disciplines. It is now based in Switzerland.

Gold medal

Gold medal

A gold medal is a medal awarded for highest achievement in a non-military field. Its name derives from the use of at least a fraction of gold in form of plating or alloying in its manufacture.

Bronze medal

Bronze medal

A bronze medal in sports and other similar areas involving competition is a medal made of bronze awarded to the third-place finisher of contests or competitions such as the Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games, etc. The outright winner receives a gold medal and the second place a silver medal. More generally, bronze is traditionally the most common metal used for all types of high-quality medals, including artistic ones. The practice of awarding bronze third place medals in the Olympic Games began at the 1904 Olympic Games in St. Louis, Missouri, before which only first and second places were awarded.

Pewter

Pewter

Pewter is a malleable metal alloy consisting of tin (85–99%), antimony, copper (2%), bismuth, and sometimes silver. Copper and antimony act as hardeners, but lead may be used in lower grades of pewter, imparting a bluish tint. Pewter has a low melting point, around 170–230 °C (338–446 °F), depending on the exact mixture of metals. The word pewter is probably a variation of the word spelter, a term for zinc alloys.

Short program (figure skating)

Short program (figure skating)

The short program of figure skating is the first of two segments of competitions, skated before the free skating program. It lasts, for both senior and junior singles and pair skaters, 2 minutes and 40 seconds. In synchronized skating, for both juniors and seniors, the short program lasts 2 minutes and 50 seconds. Vocal music with lyrics is allowed for all disciplines since the 2014-2015 season. The short program for single skaters and for pair skaters consists of seven required elements, and there are six required elements for synchronized skaters.

Free skating

Free skating

The free skating segment of figure skating, also called the free skate and the long program, is the second of two segments of competitions, skated after the short program. Its duration, across all disciplines, is four minutes for senior skaters and teams, and three and one-half minutes for junior skaters and teams. Vocal music with lyrics is allowed for all disciplines since the 2014—2015 season. The free skating program, across all disciplines, must be well-balanced and include certain elements described and published by the International Skating Union (ISU).

Original dance

Original dance

The original dance (OD) was one of the programs performed by figure skaters in ice dance competitions, in which the ice dancers skated "a dance of their own creation to dance music they have selected for the designated rhythm(s)". It was normally the second of three programs in the competition, sandwiched between the compulsory dance (CD) and the free dance (FD). The rhythm(s) and type of music required for the OD changed every season, and were selected by the International Skating Union (ISU) before the start of the season. The ice dancers were free to choose their own music and choreography and to create their own routines. They were judged on a set of required criteria, including skating skills and how well they interpreted the music and the rhythm.

Ballroom dance

Ballroom dance

Ballroom dance is a set of partner dances, which are enjoyed both socially and competitively around the world, mostly because of its performance and entertainment aspects. Ballroom dancing is also widely enjoyed on stage, film, and television.

Short dance

Short dance

The short dance (SD) was the first segment of an ice dancing competition from the 2010–2011 to the 2017–2018 seasons. It was approved in June 2010 by the International Skating Union (ISU). It merged the original dance (OD) and compulsory dance (CD), which were both discontinued. The ISU renamed the short dance to the rhythm dance (RD) in 2018.

Rhythm dance

Rhythm dance

The rhythm dance (RD) is the first segment of an ice dance competition. The International Skating Union (ISU) renamed the short dance to the "rhythm dance" in June 2018, prior to the 2018–2019 season. It became part of international competitions in July 2018. French ice dancers Gabriella Papadakis and Guillaume Cizeron hold the highest RD score of 90.83 points, which they achieved at the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics.

World standings and season's bests

World standings

The world standing (WS) of a skater/couple is calculated based on the results over the current and preceding two seasons. Competitors receive points based on their final placement at an event and the event's weight. The following events receive points:[71]

  • ISU Championships (World, European, Four Continents, and World Junior Championships) and Olympic Winter Games: The best result by points per season, the best two results by points over the three seasons.
  • ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating and Final (senior and junior): The two best results by points per season, the best four results by points over the three seasons.
  • International senior calendar competitions: The two best results by points per season, the best four results by points over the three seasons.

Following the current season's World Championships, the results from the earliest season are deleted. A new partnership starts with zero points; there is no transfer of WS points if a pair or ice dance couple split up and form a new partnership.

These standings do not necessarily reflect the capabilities of the skater(s). Due to limits on entries to events (no more than three from each country), and varying numbers of high-level skaters in each country, skaters from some countries may find it more difficult to qualify to compete at major events. Thus, a skater with a lower SB but from a country with few high-level skaters may qualify to a major event while a skater with a much higher SB but from a country with more than three high-level skaters may not be sent. As a result, it is possible for a skater who regularly scores higher to end up with a much lower world standing.

The season's world ranking of a skater/couple is calculated similarly to the overall world standing but is based on the results of the ongoing season only.[71]

Season's bests

The season's best (SB) of a skater/couple is the highest score achieved within a particular season. There is an SB for the combined total score and the individual segment scores (short program/rhythm dance, free skating/free dance). Only scores achieved at selected international competitions are considered; scores from national competitions and some international events are disregarded. The best combined total for each skater or couple appears on a list of season's bests,[72] and the list may be used to help determine participants in the following season's Grand Prix series.

Skaters and couples also have personal best (PB) scores, i.e. the highest scores achieved over their entire career, in terms of combined total and segment scores. However, PB scores are not completely comparable if achieved in different seasons because the ISU regulations and technical rules are modified before each new season.[73] There may be different requirements specified to achieve a certain level; the required elements may change and new elements may be allowed (for example, two quads in the short program were permitted starting in the 2010–11 season); and the point values may change (for example, the values of quads were increased after the 2010 Olympics, and a second step sequence is no longer assigned a level in the men's competition). As a result of these variations in the technical requirements, the ISU places more weight on the season's bests, which are fully comparable within any one season.

Music and clothing

Music

For competitive programs, figure skaters were once restricted to instrumental music; vocals were allowed only if they contained no lyrics or words.[74] Beginning in the 1997–98 season, the ISU decided to allow lyrics or words in ice dance music. Although the rules were not relaxed for singles and pairs, judges did not always penalize violations. At the 2011 World Championships, Florent Amodio's long program music included words but an insufficient number of judges voted for a deduction.[75] In June 2012, the ISU voted to allow skaters from all disciplines to choose music with words in their competitive programs beginning in the 2014–15 season.[76][77]

Skaters may use professional music editors so that their music meets requirements.[78] Ice dancers are required to skate to music that has a definite beat or rhythm. Singles and pair skaters more often skate to the melody and phrasing of their music. For long programs, figure skaters generally search for music with different moods and tempos.[79] Music selections for exhibitions are less constrained than for competitive programs.

Clothing

An example of ice dance costumes (Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir at 2012 World Championships)
An example of ice dance costumes (Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir at 2012 World Championships)

Skaters are generally free to select their own attire, with a few restrictions. In competition, women may wear a dress, typically with matching attached briefs. This rule of costuming was created in response to Katarina Witt's costume and performance at the 1988 Winter Olympics.[80] In 2004, the rule was extended to allow women to wear trousers.[81] They may wear opaque flesh-colored leggings or tights under dresses and skirts, which may extend to cover their skates. Men must wear trousers – they are not allowed to wear tights, although, officials do not always impose a deduction for violations.[82] Matching costumes are not required in pair skating and ice dance.[83]

Competition costumes vary widely, from simple designs to heavily beaded or trimmed costumes. Skaters risk a deduction if a piece of their costume falls onto the ice surface. An official may stop a program if he or she deems there to be a hazard. Skaters and family members may design their own costumes, sometimes with assistance from their coach or choreographer, or turn to professional designers.[83][84][85][86] Costumes may cost thousands of dollars if designed by a top-level costume maker.

According to current ISU regulations, costumes in competition must be fair, non-revealing, and appropriate for both short and long programs. Costumes should not be showy or exotic in nature. Clothing, however, can reflect the genre of music chosen.[9] Although the use of flesh-colored fabric means the costumes are often less revealing than they may appear, there have been repeated attempts to ban clothing that gives the impression of "excessive nudity" or that is otherwise inappropriate for athletic competition.[87] In general, accessories or props are not permitted in competition.[9] The ISU allowed an exception for the original dance in the 2007–08 season but not since.

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International Skating Union

International Skating Union

The International Skating Union (ISU) is the international governing body for competitive ice skating disciplines, including figure skating, synchronized skating, speed skating, and short track speed skating. It was founded in Scheveningen, Netherlands, in July 1892, making it one of the oldest international sport federations. The ISU was formed to establish standardized international rules and regulations for the skating disciplines it governs, and to organize international competitions in these disciplines. It is now based in Switzerland.

Ice dance

Ice dance

Ice dance is a discipline of figure skating that historically draws from ballroom dancing. It joined the World Figure Skating Championships in 1952, and became a Winter Olympic Games medal sport in 1976. According to the International Skating Union (ISU), the governing body of figure skating, an ice dance team consists of one woman and one man.

2011 World Figure Skating Championships

2011 World Figure Skating Championships

The 2011 World Figure Skating Championships was a senior international figure skating competition in the 2010–11 season. Medals were awarded in the disciplines of men's singles, ladies' singles, pair skating, and ice dancing.

Florent Amodio

Florent Amodio

Florent Amodio is a French figure skating coach and former competitor. He is the 2011 European champion, a four-time French national champion, and the 2008 JGP Final champion. He has represented France at two Winter Olympics.

2014–15 figure skating season

2014–15 figure skating season

The 2014–15 figure skating season began on July 1, 2014, and ended on June 30, 2015. During this season, elite skaters competed at the ISU Championship level in the 2015 European, Four Continents, World Junior, and World Championships. Other elite events included the Grand Prix series and Junior Grand Prix series, culminating in the Grand Prix Final, and the inaugural ISU Challenger Series.

Free skating

Free skating

The free skating segment of figure skating, also called the free skate and the long program, is the second of two segments of competitions, skated after the short program. Its duration, across all disciplines, is four minutes for senior skaters and teams, and three and one-half minutes for junior skaters and teams. Vocal music with lyrics is allowed for all disciplines since the 2014—2015 season. The free skating program, across all disciplines, must be well-balanced and include certain elements described and published by the International Skating Union (ISU).

Tessa Virtue

Tessa Virtue

Tessa Jane McCormick Virtue is a Canadian retired ice dancer. With ice dance partner Scott Moir, she is the 2010 and 2018 Olympic champion, the 2014 Olympic silver medalist, a three-time World champion, a three-time Four Continents champion, the 2016–17 Grand Prix Final champion, an eight-time Canadian National champion, the 2006 World Junior champion and the 2006 Junior Grand Prix gold medalists. Virtue and Moir are also the 2018 Olympic gold medalists in the team event and the 2014 Olympic silver medalists in the team event. Upon winning their third Olympic gold medal, they became the most decorated Canadian ice dance team of all time and the most decorated Olympic figure skaters of all time. Widely regarded as one of the greatest ice dance teams of all time, they are the only ice dancers in history to achieve a Super Slam, having won all major international competitions in their senior and junior careers. Virtue and Moir are holders of the world record score for the now-defunct original dance.

Scott Moir

Scott Moir

Scott Patrick Moir OLY is a Canadian retired ice dancer and coach. With ice dance partner Tessa Virtue, he is the 2010 and 2018 Olympic champion, the 2014 Olympic silver medalist, a three-time World champion, a three-time Four Continents champion, the 2016–17 Grand Prix Final champion, an eight-time Canadian national champion, the 2006 World Junior champion and the 2006 Junior Grand Prix champion. Moir and Virtue are also the 2018 Olympic gold medalists in the team event and the 2014 Olympic silver medalists in the team event. Upon winning their third Olympic gold medal, they became the most decorated Canadian ice dance team of all time and the most decorated Olympic figure skaters of all time. Widely regarded as one of the greatest ice dance teams of all time, they are the only ice dancers in history to achieve a Super Slam, having won all major international competitions in their senior and junior careers. Virtue and Moir are holders of the world record score for the now-defunct original dance.

Original dance

Original dance

The original dance (OD) was one of the programs performed by figure skaters in ice dance competitions, in which the ice dancers skated "a dance of their own creation to dance music they have selected for the designated rhythm(s)". It was normally the second of three programs in the competition, sandwiched between the compulsory dance (CD) and the free dance (FD). The rhythm(s) and type of music required for the OD changed every season, and were selected by the International Skating Union (ISU) before the start of the season. The ice dancers were free to choose their own music and choreography and to create their own routines. They were judged on a set of required criteria, including skating skills and how well they interpreted the music and the rhythm.

Eligibility

Age eligibility

To compete internationally on the senior level, skaters must be at least 15 before July 1 of the preceding year. To be eligible for junior-level events, a skater must be at least 13 but under 19 before that date (or 21 for male pair skaters and ice dancers).[88][89] A skater must meet the age requirement before it becomes July 1 in their place of birth. For example, Adelina Sotnikova was born a few hours into July 1, 1996, in Moscow and consequently, was not eligible to compete at Junior Worlds until 2011 and senior Worlds until 2013.[90] The ISU's rules apply to international events. Many countries have no age requirements for domestic non-ISU competitions, thus, some skaters compete at the senior level nationally while not eligible for international competition.

The ISU has modified its age rules several times. Before the 1990s, 12 was the minimum age for senior international competitions.[91] New rules were introduced in 1996, requiring skaters to be at least 15 before July 1 of the preceding year to compete at the Olympics, Worlds, Europeans, or Four Continents.[88] The minimum age for all other senior internationals was 14 until July 2014, when it was raised to 15. The age limit will be gradually raised to 16 years old for the 2023-24 season before increasing to 17 for the 2024-25 season, where it will remain thereafter.[92] The move came after the 2022 Winter Olympics scandal over Kamila Valieva's doping allegations and the controversy over her responsibility as a minor.[93]

During the 2005–06 season, Mao Asada of Japan was age-eligible to compete at the Grand Prix Final, where she claimed the title, but she was not permitted to compete at the Olympics. For the 2008 World Championships, the United States was obliged to send skaters who had placed 5th and 7th at nationals because higher-placed skaters were too young, including a skater who missed the cutoff by 20 days.[88][94] The ISU has strictly enforced the rules in recent years.[88] However, American pair skater Natasha Kuchiki was allowed to compete at the 1990 World Championships when she was two years too young and American single skater Tara Lipinski, who was 13 at the time the 1996 rules were introduced, was grandfathered into remaining eligible for future events, along with other skaters who had already competed at the World Championships. A loophole also existed for a few years for underage skaters who had medaled at Junior Worlds.[95]

As in gymnastics, skating has experienced controversy surrounding possible age falsification. On February 14, 2011, questions emerged surrounding nine Chinese skaters. The Associated Press found that birthdates listed on the Chinese Skating Association's website suggested five female skaters, Sui Wenjing, Zhang Dan, Yu Xiaoyu, Geng Bingwa, and Xu Binshu, were younger than their ISU ages, and four male skaters, Han Cong, Zhang Hao, Jin Yang, and Gao Yu, were older.[88] The dates disappeared from the website by February 15.[96] On February 17, the ISU said there were no discrepancies for Zhang Dan, Zhang Hao, and Xu Binshu between the birthdates listed on their passports, ISU registration forms and the Chinese Olympic Committee's website.[96] Athletes in China sometimes face pressure to falsify their age.[97]


Other eligibility rules

Skaters may represent a country of which they are not yet a citizen in most competitions, except the Olympics which require citizenship.

At most international events, each country may send one to a maximum of three entries per discipline. Consequently, even if a skater has a high season's best, he or she may not be sent to major events if their country has many good skaters in their discipline. Some skaters have tried to circumvent this by representing another country. In response, the ISU introduced rules barring skaters from international events for a certain period of time. In the 2010 regulations, it was 24 months or more from the date of the last ISU Championship.[98] In the 2012 regulations, the minimum was 18 months for singles and 12 months for pairs/ice dancers from the date of their last ISU Championships (Worlds, Europeans, Four Continents, Junior Worlds) and 12 months if they competed in some other international competition.[99] Competitors may sit out for much longer because they also have to obtain a release from their previous federation. The ISU has set no limit to how long a country may hold skaters.[99]

Skaters may lose their ISU eligibility if they perform in an unsanctioned show or competition.

Beginning in the 2010–11 season, minimum scores were introduced for the World, European, or Four Continents Championships. In the 2011–12 season, different minimum scores were introduced for the Grand Prix series.

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Adelina Sotnikova

Adelina Sotnikova

Adelina Dmitriyevna Sotnikova is a retired Russian figure skater. She is the 2014 Olympic gold medalist in ladies' singles, a two-time European silver medalist, a two-time Rostelecom Cup bronze medalist, and a four-time Russian national champion.

International Skating Union

International Skating Union

The International Skating Union (ISU) is the international governing body for competitive ice skating disciplines, including figure skating, synchronized skating, speed skating, and short track speed skating. It was founded in Scheveningen, Netherlands, in July 1892, making it one of the oldest international sport federations. The ISU was formed to establish standardized international rules and regulations for the skating disciplines it governs, and to organize international competitions in these disciplines. It is now based in Switzerland.

Figure skating at the 2022 Winter Olympics – Women's singles

Figure skating at the 2022 Winter Olympics – Women's singles

The women's singles competition in figure skating at the 2022 Winter Olympics was held on 15 February and 17 February, at the Capital Indoor Stadium in Haidian District of Beijing. Anna Shcherbakova, representing the Russian Olympic Committee, won the event, and her teammate, Alexandra Trusova, the silver medal. Kaori Sakamoto of Japan won bronze. For all, it was their first individual Olympic medals; Sakamoto had earlier won a medal in the team event.

Kamila Valieva

Kamila Valieva

Kamila Valeryevna Valieva is a Russian figure skater. She is the 2022 European champion, 2021 Rostelecom Cup champion, 2021 Skate Canada International champion, and 2021 and 2023 Russian National silver medalist. She is also a provisional 2022 Olympic champion in the team event pending the conclusion of a WADA investigation. During the 2022 Winter Olympics, a sample that Valieva had submitted for a drug test in December tested positive for trimetazidine. As of mid-February, investigations were ongoing.

2008 World Figure Skating Championships

2008 World Figure Skating Championships

The 2008 World Figure Skating Championships was a senior international figure skating competition in the 2007–08 figure skating season. Medals were awarded in the disciplines of men's singles, ladies' singles, pair skating, and ice dancing. The event was held at the Scandinavium arena in Gothenburg, Sweden from March 16 to 23.

1990 World Figure Skating Championships

1990 World Figure Skating Championships

The 1990 World Figure Skating Championships were held at the Halifax Metro Centre in Halifax, Canada from March 6 to 11. Medals were awarded in men's singles, ladies' singles, pair skating, and ice dancing.

Grandfather clause

Grandfather clause

A grandfather clause, also known as grandfather policy, grandfathering, or grandfathered in, is a provision in which an old rule continues to apply to some existing situations while a new rule will apply to all future cases. Those exempt from the new rule are said to have grandfather rights or acquired rights, or to have been grandfathered in. Frequently, the exemption is limited, as it may extend for a set time, or it may be lost under certain circumstances; for example, a grandfathered power plant might be exempt from new, more restrictive pollution laws, but the exception may be revoked and the new rules would apply if the plant were expanded. Often, such a provision is used as a compromise or out of practicality, to allow new rules to be enacted without upsetting a well-established logistical or political situation. This extends the idea of a rule not being retroactively applied.

Age fabrication

Age fabrication

Age fabrication occurs when people deliberately misrepresent their true age. This is usually done with the intention to garner privileges or status that would not otherwise be available to that person. It may be done through the use of oral or written statements or through the altering, doctoring or forging of vital records.

Associated Press

Associated Press

The Associated Press (AP) is an American not-for-profit news agency headquartered in New York City. Founded in 1846, it operates as a cooperative, unincorporated association, and produces news reports that are distributed to its members, U.S. newspapers and broadcasters. Since the award was established in 1917, the AP has earned 56 Pulitzer Prizes, including 34 for photography. It is also known for publishing the widely used AP Stylebook.

Chinese Skating Association

Chinese Skating Association

The Chinese Skating Association (CSA) was founded in 1956. It hosts the annual Chinese Figure Skating Championships and the Cup of China.

Geng Bingwa

Geng Bingwa

Geng Bingwa is a Chinese figure skater. She won the silver medal in 2008 and 2011 at the Chinese Figure Skating Championships, and reached the free skate at five International Skating Union Championships.

Han Cong

Han Cong

Han Cong is a Chinese pair skater. With partner Sui Wenjing, he is the 2022 Olympic gold medalist, 2018 Olympic silver medalist, a two-time world champion, a three-time world silver medalist, the 2019–20 Grand Prix Final champion, a six-time Four Continents champion, a three-time World Junior champion (2010–2012), the 2009–10 Junior Grand Prix Final champion, and a two-time Chinese national champion. Sui and Han are the first pair skate team to achieve a Super Slam, having won all major competitions in both their senior and junior career. They have landed throw quadruple salchows and quadruple twists in competition.

Competitors' expenses, income, and funding

Figure skating is an expensive sport.[100][101][102][103] This is particularly due to the costs of ice time and coaching.[104] In the late 1980s, the expenses of a top-ten women's competitor at the U.S. Championships reached nearly US$50,000 a year.[105] In October 2004, a U.S. Figure Skating article estimated the annual expense at US$9,000–$10,000 for pre-juvenile, US$18,000 for juvenile, US$35,000–$40,000 for novice, and said junior and senior levels were somewhat more expensive.[100] In the 2010s, American senior national medalists had expenses in the mid-five-figure range.[101][106] Swiss skater Stéphane Lambiel said his costs were around CHF 100,000 per season.[107] World champion Patrick Chan's expenses were Can$150,000.[108] In 2015, CBC Sports estimated that a Canadian pair team had expenses of about Can$100,000 per year.[109]

Prize money is relatively low compared to other sports.[110] A men's or women's singles skater who won the 2011 World Championships earned US$45,000,[111] about 1.8% to 2.5% of the US$1,800,000–$2,400,000 for winners of the tennis US Open and Australian Open.[112][113] A couple who won the pairs or ice dance title split US$67,500.[111] A winner of the senior Grand Prix Final in December 2011 earned US$25,000.[114]

Some national associations provide funding to some skaters if they meet certain criteria.[115] Many skaters take part-time jobs and some have tried crowdfunding.[116][117] In Germany, many elite skaters join the army to fund their skating.[118] In Italy, some skaters join police agencies' sport groups, such as the Polizia Penitenziaria's Fiamme Azzurre (Carolina Kostner, Anna Cappellini, Luca Lanotte)[119][120] or Polizia di Stato's Fiamme Oro (Federica Faiella, Paolo Bacchini).[121] Some competitive skaters depend on income from shows.[122][123] Shows must be sanctioned by their association, i.e. skaters may lose their competitive eligibility if they take part without permission. In some cases, skaters may feel pressure to compete through injury to be allowed to perform in a show.[122] Others may become involved with coaching younger athletes in order to fund their own training costs.

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Canadian dollar

Canadian dollar

The Canadian dollar is the currency of Canada. It is abbreviated with the dollar sign $. There is no standard disambiguating form, but the abbreviations Can$, CA$ and C$ are frequently used for distinction from other dollar-denominated currencies. It is divided into 100 cents (¢).

CBC Sports

CBC Sports

CBC Sports is the division of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation responsible for English-language sports broadcasting. The CBC's sports programming primarily airs on CBC Television, CBCSports.ca, and CBC Radio One.

2011 World Figure Skating Championships

2011 World Figure Skating Championships

The 2011 World Figure Skating Championships was a senior international figure skating competition in the 2010–11 season. Medals were awarded in the disciplines of men's singles, ladies' singles, pair skating, and ice dancing.

2011 US Open (tennis)

2011 US Open (tennis)

The 2011 US Open was a tennis tournament played on the outdoor hard courts at the Billie Jean King National Tennis Center in Flushing Meadows Park, of Queens, New York City, United States. It began on 29 August and was originally scheduled to end on 11 September, but the men's final was postponed to 12 September due to rain.

2012 Australian Open

2012 Australian Open

The 2012 Australian Open was a tennis tournament that took place in Melbourne Park in Melbourne, Australia, from 16 to 29 January 2012. It was the 100th edition of the Australian Open, and the first Grand Slam event of the year. The tournament consisted of events for professional players in singles, doubles and mixed doubles play. Junior and wheelchair players competed in singles and doubles tournaments.

2011–12 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final

2011–12 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final

The 2011–12 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final was an international figure skating competition in the 2011–12 season. The ISU Junior Grand Prix Final was organized together with the senior event. The two competitions were the culmination of two international series, the 2011–12 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating for senior-level skaters and the 2011–12 ISU Junior Grand Prix for juniors.

Crowdfunding

Crowdfunding

Bcompany

Gruppo Sportivo Fiamme Azzurre

Gruppo Sportivo Fiamme Azzurre

The Gruppo Sportivo Fiamme Azzurre is the sport section of the Italian police force Polizia Penitenziaria.

Carolina Kostner

Carolina Kostner

Carolina Kostner is an Italian figure skater. She is the 2014 Olympic bronze medalist, the 2012 World champion, a five-time European champion, and the 2011 Grand Prix Final champion. She is also a medalist at five other World Championships, six other European Championships, and three other Grand Prix Finals, the 2003 World Junior bronze medalist, and a nine-time Italian national champion. Kostner has won 11 medals at the European championships, most recently in 2018, and is the most decorated singles skater in the history of the competition.

Anna Cappellini

Anna Cappellini

Anna Cappellini is an Italian ice dancer. With partner Luca Lanotte, she is the 2014 World champion, the 2014 European champion, the 2015 Cup of China champion and a thirteen-time medalist on the Grand Prix series, and a seven-time Italian national champion (2012–18).

Luca Lanotte

Luca Lanotte

Luca Lanotte is an Italian former ice dancer. With partner Anna Cappellini, he is the 2014 World champion, the 2014 European champion, the 2015 Cup of China champion and a thirteen-time medalist on the Grand Prix series, and a seven-time Italian national champion (2012–18).

Federica Faiella

Federica Faiella

Federica Faiella is an Italian former competitive ice dancer. With partner Massimo Scali, she is the 2010 World bronze medalist, a two-time (2009–2010) European silver medalist, and six-time Italian national champion. They also won eleven Grand Prix medals.

Injuries and health issues

In some countries, medical personnel may be slow to respond to accidents. At the 2000 World Championships in Nice, France, a pair skater who had been injured in a lift accident lay on the ice for several minutes and had to get up and leave the ice on his own before being offered medical attention.[124]

Head injuries, falls and collisions

Competitive skaters generally do not wear helmets or other protective gear. There is a risk of head injuries, particularly in pair skating as a result of falls from lifts.[125][126] Although pair skaters are most susceptible, serious head injuries can occur in all disciplines, including ice dance.[127][128][129] Partners have accidentally slashed each other with their skate blades.[130][131] This may occur when partners drift too close during side-by-side camel spins. Several female pair skaters have suffered head/face injuries during this element, including Elena Berezhnaya,[132] Jessica Dubé,[133] Mandy Wötzel,[134] Galina Maniachenko (Efremenko),[135] and Elena Riabchuk.[136]

Commenting on falls and concussions, Madison Hubbell said that "Most of the time, the worst falls are on things we kind of take for granted."[127] Shin splints,[137] knee injuries, and back problems are not uncommon.[5][138][139] Hip damage may occur as a result of practising jumps and throws.[5][140] In rare cases, intensive training of spins may result in subtle concussions (Lucinda Ruh).[141][142]

Injuries have also been sustained by skaters from different teams when many skaters are practising on the ice.[143] Midori Ito collided with Laetitia Hubert at the 1991 World Championships, while Oksana Baiul and Tanja Szewczenko collided at the 1994 Olympics, but all went on to compete. On practice sessions with multiple skaters on the ice, the skater whose music is playing conventionally has right of way. Also, pairs and ice dancers skating as a unit have right of way over those skating separately as changing course is more difficult for a couple.

Eating disorders and RED–S

Eating disorders are reportedly common in figure skating[144][145][146] and can result in the development of relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S), formerly known as the "female athlete triad". RED-S is a syndrome of three interrelated conditions which can cause long-standing illness in girls and women and even death. Body image and the need to maintain a fit body is a very common issue in figure skating, as skaters age, their bodies change and change the way they must approach the sport. [147] Skaters such as Gracie Gold,[148] and Ashley Wagner [149] have faced issues such as eating disorders and depression.

Doping

Figure skaters occasionally have positive doping results but it is not common.[150] In a 1991 interview, three-time Olympic champion Irina Rodnina admitted that Soviet skaters used doping substances in preparation for the competitive season, stating: "Boys in pairs and singles used drugs, but this was only in August or September. This was done just in training, and everyone was tested (in the Soviet Union) before competitions."[151]

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2000 World Figure Skating Championships

2000 World Figure Skating Championships

The 2000 World Figure Skating Championships had been held at the Palais des Exposition Nice in Nice, France from March 23 to April 3. The event was sanctioned by the International Skating Union. Medals were awarded in men's singles, ladies' singles, pair skating, and ice dancing.

Elena Berezhnaya

Elena Berezhnaya

Elena Viktorovna Berezhnaya is a Russian former pair skater. With partner Anton Sikharulidze, she is the 1998 and 1999 World champion, 1998 Olympic silver medalist and 2002 Olympic champion.

Jessica Dubé

Jessica Dubé

Jessica Dubé is a Canadian former competitive figure skater who is best known for her pairs career with Bryce Davison. They are the 2008 World bronze medallists, the 2009 Four Continents silver medallists, and three-time Canadian national champions. They represented Canada at the 2006 and 2010 Winter Olympics. With later partner Sébastien Wolfe, Dubé is the 2012 Canadian national silver medallist.

Mandy Wötzel

Mandy Wötzel

Mandy Wötzel is a German former pair skater who represented East Germany and later Germany in international competition. With partner Ingo Steuer, she is the 1998 Olympic bronze medalist, the 1997 World champion, the 1995 European champion, and a four-time German national champion.

Galina Efremenko

Galina Efremenko

Galina Efremenko (née Maniachenko is a Ukrainian former competitive figure skater. She competed as Galina Maniachenko from 1993 until 2005 when she began competing under her married name, Efremenko. She won the bronze medal at the 2003 Cup of Russia, gold medals at the 2000 Nebelhorn Trophy, 2003 Karl Schäfer Memorial, 2000 and 2003 Ondrej Nepela Memorial, and three Ukrainian national titles. She competed twice at the Winter Olympics, placing 12th in 2002. Her highest placement at the European Championships was 4th in 2002.

Elena Riabchuk

Elena Riabchuk

Elena Riabchuk is a former pair skater who competed for Russia. She is the 2002 World Junior champion with partner Stanislav Zakharov. She was hospitalized for a couple of weeks in the summer of 2000 after her partner's blade struck her head while practicing a side-by-side spin.

Madison Hubbell

Madison Hubbell

Madison Hubbell is an American former ice dancer. She competed with Zachary Donohue from 2011 to 2022. With him, she is a two-time 2022 Winter Olympics medalist, a four-time World medalist, the 2018 Grand Prix Final champion, the 2014 Four Continents champion, and a three-time U.S. national champion.

Lucinda Ruh

Lucinda Ruh

Lucinda Martha Ruh is a Swiss former competitive figure skater. She is the 1996 Swiss national champion and the 1993 junior level national champion.

Midori Ito

Midori Ito

Midori Ito is a retired Japanese figure skater. She is the 1989 World champion and the 1992 Olympic silver medalist. She is the first woman to land a triple-triple jump combination and a triple Axel in competition. At the 1988 Calgary Olympics, she became the first woman to land seven triple jumps in an Olympic free skating competition. She is widely recognised as one of the best figure skaters of all time.

Gracie Gold

Gracie Gold

Grace Elizabeth Gold, known as Gracie Gold, is an American figure skater. She is a 2014 Olympic team event bronze medalist, the 2014 NHK Trophy champion, the 2015 Trophée Éric Bompard champion, and a two-time U.S. national champion. She is also a two-time World Team Trophy champion.

Ashley Wagner

Ashley Wagner

Ashley Elisabeth Wagner is an American former figure skater. She is the 2016 World silver medalist, a 2014 Olympic bronze medalist in the team event, the 2012 Four Continents champion, a three-time Grand Prix Final medalist, winner of five Grand Prix events, and a three-time U.S. national champion.

Doping in figure skating

Doping in figure skating

Doping in figure skating involves the use of illegal performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs), specifically those listed and monitored by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). Figure skaters occasionally have positive doping results but it is not common. Bans can be enforced on figure skaters by the International Skating Union (ISU) and each country's individual skating federation. These bans can often be career ending due to the competitive nature of figure skating. A ban may be revoked if it can be proved that the skater tested positive for a prescribed medication. Some figure skaters will use PEDs to help with recovery time, allowing them to train harder and longer. Figure skating is an aesthetic sport that combines both athleticism and artistic licence, where weight-loss substances will have little effect on athletic performance but skaters may be perceived as more graceful and sleek, which is required for an athlete to be competitive.

History

Jackson Haines is considered the father of modern figure skating.
Jackson Haines is considered the father of modern figure skating.

Although people have been ice skating for centuries, figure skating in its current form originated in the mid-19th century. A Treatise on Skating (1772) by the accomplished skater, Welshman Lt. 'Captain' Robert Jones (c.1740–c.1788), is the first-known book on figure skating. He designed skates that could be attached to shoes by screws through the heels (rather than using straps), and these were soon available from Riccard's Manufactory in London.[152]

Competitions were held in the "English style" of skating, which was stiff and formal and bore very little resemblance to modern figure skating. Without changing the basic techniques used by skaters, only a limited number of figure skating moves could be performed. This was still true in the mid-1800s before improvements were brought about by American skater Jackson Haines, who was considered to be the "father of modern figure skating". In the mid-1860s, Haines introduced a new style of skating, incorporating free and expressive techniques, which became known as the "international style". Although popular in Europe, the international style of skating was not widely adopted in the United States until long after Haines's death.[153]

Early 1900s

The International Skating Union was founded in 1892. The first European Figure Skating Championships were held in 1891 in Hamburg, Germany (won by Oskar Uhlig), and the first World Figure Skating Championships were held in 1896 in Saint Petersburg, Russia (won by Gilbert Fuchs). Only men competed in the early events but in 1902 a woman entered the World Championships for the first time: British female skater Madge Syers competed in the men's competition, finishing in second place behind Sweden's Ulrich Salchow. The ISU quickly banned women from competing against men, and established a separate "ladies" competition in 1906. Pair skating was introduced at the 1908 World Championships, where the title was won by Anna Hübler and Heinrich Burger of Germany.

Figure skating was the first winter sport contested at the Olympics; it made its Olympic debut at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London.[1][154] On March 20, 1914, an international figure skating championship was held in New Haven, Connecticut. This event was the forerunner of both the United States and Canadian National Championships. However, international competitions in figure skating were interrupted by World War I.

In the 1920s and 1930s, figure skating was dominated by Sonja Henie of Norway. Henie turned competitive success into a lucrative professional career as a movie star and touring skater, also setting the fashion for female skaters to wear short skirts and white boots.[155] The top male figure skaters of this period included Sweden's Gillis Grafström and Austria's Karl Schäfer.

After World War II

Skating competitions were again interrupted for several years by World War II. After the war, with many European rinks in ruins, skaters from the United States and Canada began to dominate international competitions and to introduce technical innovations to the sport. Dick Button, 1948 and 1952 Olympic Champion, was the first skater to perform the double Axel and triple loop jumps, as well as the flying camel spin.

The World Figure Skating Championships did not include ice dance until 1952.[154] In its early years, ice dance was dominated by British skaters, and until 1960 the world title was won every year by a British couple, beginning with Jean Westwood and Lawrence Demmy.[156]

Russian pair skaters Ludmila Belousova and Oleg Protopopov in 1968
Russian pair skaters Ludmila Belousova and Oleg Protopopov in 1968

On February 15, 1961, the entire U.S. figure skating team and their coaches were killed in the crash of Sabena Flight 548 in Brussels, Belgium en route to the World Championships in Prague. This tragedy sent the U.S. skating program into a period of rebuilding.

Meanwhile, the Soviet Union rose to become a dominant force in the sport, especially in the disciplines of pair skating and ice dance. Soviet and Russian domination in pair skating began in the 1950s and continued throughout the rest of the 1900s. Only five non-Soviet or Russian teams won the Olympics and World Championships from 1965 to 2010.[157] When Shen Xue and Zhao Hongbo of China won the gold medal at the 2010 games, this was the first time since 1960 that a Russian, Soviet, or Unified Team (CIS) flagged team did not win the gold medal.[158][159][160][161] The 1967 World Championships was the last event held on an outdoor rink.[162]

Effect of television and the present day

Compulsory figures formerly accounted for up to 60% of the score in singles figure skating,[163] meaning that skaters who could build up a significant lead in figures could win competitions even if they were mediocre free skaters. As television coverage of skating events became more important, the popularity of free skating increased because this part of the competition was televised and shown to the general public, whereas the compulsory figures competition was not. The television audience would complain when superior free programs sometimes failed to equate to gold medal victories.[164] Beginning in 1968, the ISU progressively reduced the weighting of compulsory figures and introduced the short program in 1973.[163] A critical issue was said to have been the continued failure of Janet Lynn to achieve on the world stage despite her outstanding free skate programs. For example, she missed out on a podium place at the 1971 World Championships after winning the free skate competition decisively, which produced an uproar and loud booing from the audience during the medal ceremony.[164]

With these changes, the emphasis in competitive figure skating shifted to increased athleticism. Landing triple jumps during the short program and the free skate became more important. By the 1980s, some skaters began practising quadruple jumps. Jozef Sabovcik of Czechoslovakia landed a quad toe loop at the 1986 European Championships which was recognized at the event but then ruled invalid three weeks later due to a touchdown with his free foot.[165] At the 1988 World Championships, Kurt Browning of Canada landed the first quad toe loop which has remained ratified.[166] Despite expectations, it was several years before quads became an important part of men's skating.[165] In 1988, Japan's Midori Ito became the first woman to land a triple Axel, pushing the athletic and technical level for women's programs. Worth only 20% by 1989, compulsory figures were eliminated from international competition in 1990.[163]

Takahiko Kozuka waits for his marks with coach Nobuo Sato in the "Kiss and cry" area.
Takahiko Kozuka waits for his marks with coach Nobuo Sato in the "Kiss and cry" area.

Television contributed to the sport's popularity by showing skaters in the kiss and cry area after competing.[167] Television also played a role in removing the restrictive amateur status rules that once governed the sport. In May 1990, the ISU voted to allow skaters intending to skate professionally to return to ISU competition, provided that they obtained their national association's permission.[168] In 1995, in an effort to retain skaters who might otherwise have given up their eligibility to participate in lucrative professional events, the ISU introduced prize money at its major competitions, funded by revenues from selling the TV rights to those events.

In 1984, more than 24 million people in Great Britain watched ice dance pair Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean earn unanimous 6.0s for presentation, the only perfect score in Olympic skating history, which was ranked the 8th greatest sporting moment in a UK poll.[169][170] In the 1993 National Sports Study II, considered by the Associated Press as the largest study of spectator sport popularity in America, women's figure skating was the second most popular spectator sport in America, just behind NFL football out of over 100 sports surveyed.[171] The 1993 study found that three figure skaters – Dorothy Hamill, Peggy Fleming, and Scott Hamilton[172] – were among the eight most popular athletes in the United States, of more than 800 athletes surveyed.[173] Dorothy Hamill was statistically tied with Mary Lou Retton as the most popular athlete in America. The Tonya Harding scandal in 1994 increased interest in figure skating.[174] The first night of the women's figure skating competition in the 1994 Winter Olympics achieved higher Nielsen TV ratings than the Super Bowl three weeks earlier and, to that date, was the most watched sports television program of all time.[175]

To show support, spectators sometimes throw a variety of items onto the ice after the end of a figure skating program, most commonly stuffed toys and flowers. Officials discourage people from throwing flowers that are not fully wrapped because of the possibility of debris disrupting or endangering the following skaters.[176][177]

Countries that have produced a great many successful skaters include Russia and the former Soviet Union, the United States, Canada, Japan, China, France, Germany, and Italy. While the sport has grown in East Asia, training opportunities in South Asia are limited due to a scarcity of ice rinks. India had only four major indoor ice rinks as of 2011, but there were plans for ten more to be built, mostly in malls, over the following five years.[178] As of 2016, three of these intended ten indoor rinks were built at Neptune Magnet Mall,[179] Atria Millennium Mall,[180] and Lulu Mall[181] respectively.

Four skating has mostly disappeared, while synchronized skating, singles/pair skating and ice dance have grown. On April 6, 2011, the International Olympic Committee officially confirmed the approval of a figure skating team event, which was introduced at the 2014 Winter Olympics.[182] The elimination of the compulsory dance segment provided space for the team event.[183] Each team is composed of a men's and women's singles skater, a pair, and an ice dance duo. A maximum of ten teams can compete, with five eliminated after the short program.[184] In December 2011, the ISU released details of the qualifying system and the competition.[185]

According to writer Ellyn Kestnbaum, television helped figure skating become more celebrity oriented, with high-profile skaters being treated like entertainers and famous athletes in other sports.[186] She states that television has encouraged "casual fans and other members of the general public to understand skating in terms of media-shaped parables about broader cultural issues,"[186] including anxieties about femininity or masculinity, individuality versus conformity, and nationalistic sporting contests. Kestnbaum also states that even though most skating broadcasts are produced by networks' sports divisions, competitions, even the more serious ones, they are packaged with "more emphasis on the aesthetic qualities of the skating—or of the female skaters—and on the pleasures of rooting for a home-country hero than on the technical details that determine the winners".[186] Viewers who depend upon the televised coverage of figure skating are limited in their access to information about it as a sport because broadcasters present a week's worth of competition in a few hours and they are compelled to avoid overloading viewers with too much information about the more technical aspects of the sport.[186] Journalists and scholars who write about figure skating also tend to focus on the same broader cultural issues.[187]

Discover more about History related topics

History of figure skating

History of figure skating

The history of figure skating stretches back to prehistoric times. Primitive ice skates appear in the archaeological record from about 3000 BC. Edges were added by the Dutch in the 13th and 14th century. International figure skating competitions began appearing in the late 19th century; in 1891, the European Championships were inaugurated in Hamburg, Germany, and in 1896, the first World Championship were held in Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire. At the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, England, figure skating became the first winter sport to be included in the Olympics.

Jackson Haines

Jackson Haines

Jackson Haines (1840–1875) was an American ballet dancer and figure skater who is regarded as the father of modern figure skating.

Ice skating

Ice skating

Ice skating is the self-propulsion and gliding of a person across an ice surface, using metal-bladed ice skates. People skate for various reasons, including recreation (fun), exercise, competitive sports, and commuting. Ice skating may be performed on naturally frozen bodies of water, such as ponds, lakes, canals, and rivers, and on human-made ice surfaces both indoors and outdoors.

Nikolai Panin

Nikolai Panin

Nikolai Aleksandrovich Panin-Kolomenkin was a Russian figure skater and coach. He won the gold medal in special figures in the 1908 Summer Olympics, became one of the oldest figure skating Olympic champions. Panin was Russia's first Olympic champion.

Figure skating at the 1908 Summer Olympics

Figure skating at the 1908 Summer Olympics

Four figure skating events were contested at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, but they were held in October 1908, six months after most of the other Olympic events at the 1908 Games. The figure skating competition took place at the Prince's Skating Club, in the district of Knightsbridge. It was the first time that a winter sport had ever been included in the Olympic Games, sixteen years before the first Winter Olympics in Chamonix. The number of competitors was very low, with two events having only three entrants, guaranteeing a medal for participation.

International Skating Union

International Skating Union

The International Skating Union (ISU) is the international governing body for competitive ice skating disciplines, including figure skating, synchronized skating, speed skating, and short track speed skating. It was founded in Scheveningen, Netherlands, in July 1892, making it one of the oldest international sport federations. The ISU was formed to establish standardized international rules and regulations for the skating disciplines it governs, and to organize international competitions in these disciplines. It is now based in Switzerland.

European Figure Skating Championships

European Figure Skating Championships

The European Figure Skating Championships is an annual figure skating competition in which figure skaters compete for the title of European champion. Medals are awarded in the disciplines of men's singles, women's singles, pair skating, and ice dance. The event is sanctioned by the International Skating Union (ISU) and is the sport's oldest competition. The first European Championships was held in 1891 in Hamburg, Germany and featured one segment, compulsory figures, with seven competitors, all men from Germany and Austria. It has been, other than five periods, held continuously since 1891, and has been sanctioned by the ISU since 1893. Women were allowed to compete for the first time in 1930, which is also the first time pairs skating was added to the competition. Ice dance was added in 1954. Only eligible skaters from ISU member countries in Europe can compete, and skaters must have reached at least the age of 15 before July 1 preceding the competition. ISU member countries can submit 1-3 skaters to compete in the European Championships.

Hamburg

Hamburg

Hamburg, officially the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg, is the second-largest city in Germany after Berlin, as well as the overall 7th largest city and largest non-capital city in the European Union with a population of over 1.85 million. Hamburg is 941 km2 in area. Hamburg's urban area has a population of around 2.5 million and is part of the Hamburg Metropolitan Region, which has a population of over 5.1 million people in total. The city lies on the River Elbe and two of its tributaries, the River Alster and the River Bille. One of Germany's 16 federated states, Hamburg is surrounded by Schleswig-Holstein to the north and Lower Saxony to the south.

Gilbert Fuchs

Gilbert Fuchs

Gilbert Fuchs (1871–1952) was a German figure skater who won the first World Figure Skating Championships, held in St. Petersburg, Russia, in 1896. He recaptured the world title ten years later in Munich.

Madge Syers

Madge Syers

Florence Madeline "Madge" Syers was a British figure skater. She became the first woman to compete at the World Figure Skating Championships in 1902 by entering what was previously an all-male event and won the silver medal, which prompted the International Skating Union (ISU) to create a separate ladies' championship. Syers was the winner of the first two ladies' events in 1906 and 1907, and went on to become the Olympic champion at the 1908 Olympics, the first Olympic Games to include figure skating. She also competed as a pairs skater with her husband Edgar Syers, winning the bronze medal at the 1908 Olympics.

1906 World Figure Skating Championships

1906 World Figure Skating Championships

The World Figure Skating Championships is an annual figure skating competition sanctioned by the International Skating Union in which figure skaters compete for the title of World Champion.

1908 World Figure Skating Championships

1908 World Figure Skating Championships

The World Figure Skating Championships is an annual figure skating competition sanctioned by the International Skating Union in which figure skaters compete for the title of World Champion.

In pop culture

Books

  • White Boots (1951)
  • The Official Book of Figure Skating (1998)
  • The Complete Book of Figure Skating (2002)
  • The Science of Figure Skating (2018)

Films and Shows

Video Games

Discover more about In pop culture related topics

Blades of Glory

Blades of Glory

Blades of Glory is a 2007 American sports comedy film directed by Will Speck and Josh Gordon, written by Jeff Cox, Craig Cox, John Altschuler and Dave Krinsky, and starring Will Ferrell and Jon Heder with Will Arnett, Amy Poehler, William Fichtner, Jenna Fischer and Craig T. Nelson in supporting roles. It tells the story of a mismatched pair of banned figure skaters who become teammates upon discovering a loophole that will allow them to compete in the sport again. The film's story was conceived by Busy Philipps, who "fleshed out the screenplay". However, co-writers Jeff and Craig Cox dropped her name from the script. The film was produced by DreamWorks Pictures, MTV Films, Red Hour Films and Smart Entertainment and released on March 30, 2007, by Paramount Pictures. The film was met with positive reviews.

Carmen on Ice

Carmen on Ice

Carmen on Ice is a 1990 dance film with a choreography for figure skaters made in Germany. The music is based on the opera Carmen by Georges Bizet in an orchestral version arranged especially for this film. In contrast to figure skating movies of former times, Carmen on Ice is a film without spoken dialogue, which is an innovation in the history of figure skating.

The Cutting Edge: Chasing the Dream

The Cutting Edge: Chasing the Dream

The Cutting Edge: Chasing the Dream is a 2008 sports-romantic drama television film, and the third installment in The Cutting Edge film series. The film was produced for the ABC Family cable channel, which aired on March 16, 2008. The film is rated PG-13.

Go Figure (film)

Go Figure (film)

Go Figure is a 2005 Disney Channel Original Movie, starring Jordan Hinson. Walt Disney Records released the Go Figure soundtrack on June 7, featuring the title track by Everlife alongside a music video.

I, Tonya

I, Tonya

I, Tonya is a 2017 American biographical sports mockumentary black comedy film directed by Craig Gillespie and written by Steven Rogers. It follows the life and career of American figure skater Tonya Harding and her connection to the 1994 assault on her rival Nancy Kerrigan. The film states it is based on "contradictory" and "totally true" interviews with Harding and her ex-husband Jeff Gillooly, suggesting they are unreliable narrators. This means the viewer must decide for themselves whether to see the film as the truth or as a version concocted by Harding herself. It features darkly comedic interviews with the characters in mockumentary style, set in the modern day, and breaks the fourth wall. Margot Robbie stars as Harding, Sebastian Stan as Gillooly, and Allison Janney as Harding's mother LaVona Golden. Julianne Nicholson, Caitlin Carver, Paul Walter Hauser, and Bobby Cannavale also star.

Ice Castles

Ice Castles

Ice Castles is a 1978 American romantic drama film directed by Donald Wrye and starring Lynn-Holly Johnson and Robby Benson. It is the story of Lexie Winston, a young figure skater, and her rise and fall from super stardom. Tragedy strikes when, following a freak accident, Lexie loses her sight, leaving her to hide away in the privacy of her own despair. She eventually perseveres and begins competing in figure skating again.

Ice Princess

Ice Princess

Ice Princess is a 2005 American teen sports comedy-drama film directed by Tim Fywell, written by Hadley Davis from a story by Meg Cabot and Davis, and starring Joan Cusack, Michelle Trachtenberg, Kim Cattrall and Hayden Panettiere. The film focuses on Casey Carlyle, a normal teenager who gives up a promising future academic life in order to pursue her new-found dream of being a professional figure skater. The film was released on March 18, 2005. Ice Princess had a financially unsuccessful performance at the box office, grossing $24 million in the United States during its theatrical run against a production budget of $25 million.

Snow White and the Three Stooges

Snow White and the Three Stooges

Snow White and the Three Stooges is a 1961 American comedy, fantasy film. It is the second feature film to star the Three Stooges after their 1959 resurgence in popularity. By this time, the trio consisted of Moe Howard, Larry Fine, and "Curly Joe" DeRita. Released by 20th Century Fox, this was the trio's take on the classic fairy tale Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. The film was retitled Snow White and the Three Clowns in the United Kingdom. This was Walter Lang‘s final directing film before his retirement.

Thin Ice (1937 film)

Thin Ice (1937 film)

Thin Ice is a 1937 American comedy/romance film directed by Sidney Lanfield and starring Tyrone Power and figure skater Sonja Henie.

Tonya and Nancy: The Inside Story

Tonya and Nancy: The Inside Story

Tonya & Nancy: The Inside Story is a 1994 American made-for-television biographical satirical-drama film written by Phil Penningroth and directed by Larry Shaw. It stars Alexandra Powers as Tonya Harding and Heather Langenkamp as Nancy Kerrigan and focuses on the 1994 Cobo Arena attack on Kerrigan and the extensive media coverage surrounding the infamous incident. It was released on NBC in April 1994, based on public domain material.

ESPN International Winter Sports 2002

ESPN International Winter Sports 2002

ESPN International Winter Sports 2002, known in Japan as Hyper Sports 2002 Winter , is the name of two sports video games released in 2002 by Konami, one for the PlayStation 2, Xbox, and GameCube, and the other for the Game Boy Advance. In Japan the game is part of the Hyper Sports series, known internationally as the Track & Field series.

Michelle Kwan Figure Skating

Michelle Kwan Figure Skating

Michelle Kwan Figure Skating is a computer game released in 1999, starring American skater Michelle Kwan.

Source: "Figure skating", Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, (2023, March 14th), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_skating.

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Notes
  1. ^ "Women" were referred to as "ladies" in ISU regulations and communications until the 2021–22 season.[2]
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Works cited

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