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Catullus

From Wikipedia, in a visual modern way
For the asteroid, see 11965 Catullus.
Not to be confused with Romans named "Catulus"; see Catulus.
Modern bust of Catullus on the Piazza Carducci in Sirmione.[1]
Modern bust of Catullus on the Piazza Carducci in Sirmione.[1]

Gaius Valerius Catullus (Classical Latin: [ˈɡaːiʊs waˈɫɛriʊs kaˈtʊlːʊs]; c. 84 - c. 54 BCE), often referred to simply as Catullus (Classical Latin: [kaˈtʊlːʊs], kə-TUL-əs), was a Latin poet of the late Roman Republic who wrote chiefly in the neoteric style of poetry, focusing on personal life rather than classical heroes. His surviving works are still read widely and continue to influence poetry and other forms of art.

Catullus's poems were widely appreciated by contemporary poets, significantly influencing Ovid and Virgil, among others. After his rediscovery in the Late Middle Ages, Catullus again found admirers such as Petrarch. The explicit sexual imagery which he uses in some of his poems has shocked many readers. Yet, at many instruction levels, Catullus is considered a resource for teachers of Latin.[2]

Catullus's style is highly personal, humorous, and emotional; he frequently uses hyperbole, anaphora, alliteration, and diminutives. In 25 of his poems, he mentions his devotion to a woman he refers to as "Lesbia", who is widely believed to have been the Roman aristocrat Clodia Metelli. One of the most famous of his poems is his 5th, which is often recognized for its passionate language and opening line: "Vivamus, mea Lesbia, atque amemus" ("Let us live, my Lesbia, and let us love").

Discover more about Catullus related topics

Classical Latin

Classical Latin

Classical Latin is the form of Literary Latin recognized as a literary standard by writers of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. It was used from 75 BC to the 3rd century AD, when it developed into Late Latin. In some later periods, it was regarded as good or proper Latin, with following versions viewed as debased, degenerate, or corrupted. The word Latin is now understood by default to mean "Classical Latin"; for example, modern Latin textbooks almost exclusively teach Classical Latin.

Latin poetry

Latin poetry

The history of Latin poetry can be understood as the adaptation of Greek models. The verse comedies of Plautus, the earliest surviving examples of Latin literature, are estimated to have been composed around 205-184 BC.

Neoteric

Neoteric

The Neoterikoi or Neoterics were a series of avant-garde Latin poets who wrote in the 1st century BCE. Neoteric poets deliberately turned away from classical Homeric epic poetry. Rather than focusing on the feats of ancient heroes and gods, they propagated a new style of poetry through stories that operated on a smaller scale in regard to themes and setting.

Ovid

Ovid

Publius Ovidius Naso, known in English as Ovid, was a Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a contemporary of the older Virgil and Horace, with whom he is often ranked as one of the three canonical poets of Latin literature. The Imperial scholar Quintilian considered him the last of the Latin love elegists. Although Ovid enjoyed enormous popularity during his lifetime, the emperor Augustus banished him to Tomis, a Dacian province on the Black Sea, where he remained a decade until his death.

Late Middle Ages

Late Middle Ages

The Late Middle Ages or late medieval period was the period of European history lasting from AD 1300 to 1500. The Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern period.

Petrarch

Petrarch

Francesco Petrarca, commonly anglicized as Petrarch, was a scholar and poet of early Renaissance Italy, and one of the earliest humanists.

Hyperbole

Hyperbole

Hyperbole is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech. In rhetoric, it is also sometimes known as auxesis. In poetry and oratory, it emphasizes, evokes strong feelings, and creates strong impressions. As a figure of speech, it is usually not meant to be taken literally.

Anaphora (rhetoric)

Anaphora (rhetoric)

In rhetoric, an anaphora is a rhetorical device that consists of repeating a sequence of words at the beginnings of neighboring clauses, thereby lending them emphasis. In contrast, an epistrophe is repeating words at the clauses' ends. The combination of anaphora and epistrophe results in symploce.

Alliteration

Alliteration

Alliteration is the conspicuous repetition of initial consonant sounds of nearby words in a phrase, often used as a literary device. A familiar example is "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers".

Diminutive

Diminutive

A diminutive is a word obtained by modifying a root word to convey a slighter degree of its root meaning, either to convey the smallness of the object or quality named, or to convey a sense of intimacy or endearment. A diminutive form is a word-formation device used to express such meanings. In many languages, diminutives are word forms that are formed from the root word by affixation. In most languages, diminutives can also be formed as multi-word constructions such as "Tiny Tim", or "Little Dorrit". Diminutives are often employed as nicknames and pet names when speaking to small children and when expressing extreme tenderness and intimacy to an adult. The opposite of the diminutive form is the augmentative.

Lesbia

Lesbia

Lesbia was the literary pseudonym used by the Roman poet Gaius Valerius Catullus to refer to his lover. Lesbia is traditionally identified with Clodia, the wife of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer and sister of Publius Clodius Pulcher; her conduct and motives are maligned in Cicero's extant speech Pro Caelio, delivered in 56 BC.

Catullus 5

Catullus 5

Catullus 5 is a passionate ode to Lesbia and one of the most famous poems by Catullus. The poem encourages lovers to scorn the snide comments of others, and to live only for each other, since life is brief and death brings a night of perpetual sleep. This poem has been translated and imitated many times.

Life

Gāius Valerius Catullus was born to a leading equestrian family of Verona, in Cisalpine Gaul. The social prominence of the Catullus family allowed the father of Gaius Valerius to entertain Julius Caesar when he was the Promagistrate (proconsul) of both Gallic provinces.[3] In a poem, Catullus describes his happy homecoming to the family villa at Sirmio, on Lake Garda, near Verona; he also owned a villa near the resort of Tibur (modern Tivoli).[3]

Catullus appears to have spent most of his young adult years in Rome. His friends there included the poets Licinius Calvus, and Helvius Cinna, Quintus Hortensius (son of the orator and rival of Cicero) and the biographer Cornelius Nepos, to whom Catullus dedicated a libellus of poems,[3] the relation of which to the extant collection remains a matter of debate.[4] He appears to have been acquainted with the poet Marcus Furius Bibaculus. A number of prominent contemporaries appear in his poetry, including Cicero, Caesar and Pompey. According to an anecdote preserved by Suetonius, Caesar did not deny that Catullus's lampoons left an indelible stain on his reputation, but when Catullus apologized, he invited the poet for dinner the very same day.[5]

Catullus at Lesbia's by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema
Catullus at Lesbia's by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema

It was probably in Rome that Catullus fell deeply in love with the "Lesbia" of his poems, who is usually identified with Clodia Metelli, a sophisticated woman from the aristocratic house of patrician family Claudii Pulchri, sister of the infamous Publius Clodius Pulcher, and wife to proconsul Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer. In his poems Catullus describes several stages of their relationship: initial euphoria, doubts, separation, and his wrenching feelings of loss. Clodia had several other partners; "From the poems one can adduce no fewer than five lovers in addition to Catullus: Egnatius (poem 37), Gellius (poem 91), Quintius (poem 82), Rufus (poem 77), and Lesbius (poem 79)." There is also some question surrounding her husband's mysterious death in 59 BCE, with some critics believing he was domestically poisoned. However, a sensitive and passionate Catullus could not relinquish his flame for Clodia, regardless of her obvious indifference to his desire for a deep and permanent relationship. In his poems, Catullus wavers between devout, sweltering love and bitter, scornful insults that he directs at her blatant infidelity (as demonstrated in poems 11 and 58). His passion for her is unrelenting—yet it is unclear when exactly the couple split up for good. Catullus's poems about the relationship display striking depth and psychological insight.[6]

He spent the provincial command year summer 57 to summer 56 BCE in Bithynia on the staff of the commander Gaius Memmius. While in the East, he traveled to the Troad to perform rites at his brother's tomb, an event recorded in a moving poem.[3]

Bithynia within the Roman Empire
Bithynia within the Roman Empire

No ancient biography of Catullus has survived: his life has to be pieced together from scattered references to him in other ancient authors and from his poems. Thus it is uncertain when he was born and when he died. St. Jerome says that he died in his 30th year, and was born in 87 BCE. But the poems include references to events of 55 and 54 BCE. Since the Roman consular fasti make it somewhat easy to confuse 87–57 BCE with 84–54 BCE, many scholars accept the dates 84 BC–54 BCE,[3] supposing that his latest poems and the publication of his libellus coincided with the year of his death. Other authors suggest 52 or 51 BCE as the year of the poet's death.[7] Though upon his elder brother's death Catullus lamented that their "whole house was buried along" with the deceased, the existence (and prominence) of Valerii Catulli is attested in the following centuries. T.P. Wiseman argues that after the brother's death Catullus could have married, and that, in this case, the later Valerii Catulli may have been his descendants.[8]

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Cisalpine Gaul

Cisalpine Gaul

Cisalpine Gaul was the cisalpine land inhabited by Celts (Gauls) during the 4th and 3rd centuries BC.

Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar

Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and subsequently became dictator from 49 BC until his assassination in 44 BC. He played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire.

Promagistrate

Promagistrate

In ancient Rome a promagistrate was a person who was granted the power via prorogation to act in place of an ordinary magistrate in the field. This was normally pro consule or pro praetore, that is, in place of a consul or praetor, respectively. This was expedient developed, starting in 327 BC and becoming regular by 241 BC, that was meant to allow consuls and praetors to continue their activities in the field without disruption.

Gaul

Gaul

Gaul was a region of Western Europe first clearly described by the Romans, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and parts of Switzerland, Germany, and Northern Italy. It covered an area of 494,000 km2 (191,000 sq mi). According to Julius Caesar, who took control of the region on behalf of the Roman Republic, Gaul was divided into three parts: Gallia Celtica, Belgica, and Aquitania.

Lake Garda

Lake Garda

Lake Garda is the largest lake in Italy. It is a popular holiday location in northern Italy, about halfway between Brescia and Verona, and between Venice and Milan on the edge of the Dolomites. Glaciers formed this alpine region at the end of the last ice age. The lake and its shoreline are divided between the provinces of Brescia, Verona (south-east) and Trentino (north).

Helvius Cinna

Helvius Cinna

Gaius Helvius Cinna was an influential neoteric poet of the late Roman Republic, a little older than the generation of Catullus and Calvus. He was lynched at the funeral of Julius Caesar after being mistaken for an unrelated Cornelius Cinna who had spoken out in support of the dictator's assassins.

Cicero

Cicero

Marcus Tullius Cicero was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the establishment of the Roman Empire. His extensive writings include treatises on rhetoric, philosophy and politics. He is considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the Roman equestrian order, and served as consul in 63 BC.

Cornelius Nepos

Cornelius Nepos

Cornelius Nepos was a Roman biographer. He was born at Hostilia, a village in Cisalpine Gaul not far from Verona.

Libellus

Libellus

A libellus in the Roman Empire was any brief document written on individual pages, particularly official documents issued by governmental authorities.

Marcus Furius Bibaculus

Marcus Furius Bibaculus

Marcus Furius Bibaculus, was a Roman poet, who flourished during the last century of the Republic.

Pompey

Pompey

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, known in English as Pompey or Pompey the Great, was a leading Roman general and statesman. He played a significant role in the transformation of Rome from republic to empire. Early in his career, he was a partisan and protégé of the Roman general and dictator Sulla; later, he became the political ally, and finally the enemy, of Julius Caesar.

Lawrence Alma-Tadema

Lawrence Alma-Tadema

Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema, was a Dutch painter who later settled in the United Kingdom becoming the last officially recognised denizen in 1873. Born in Dronryp, the Netherlands, and trained at the Royal Academy of Antwerp, Belgium, he settled in London, England in 1870 and spent the rest of his life there. A classical-subject painter, he became famous for his depictions of the luxury and decadence of the Roman Empire, with languorous figures set in fabulous marbled interiors or against a backdrop of dazzling blue Mediterranean Sea and sky. Alma-Tadema was considered one of the most popular Victorian painters. Though admired during his lifetime for his draftsmanship and depictions of Classical antiquity, his work fell into disrepute after his death, and only since the 1960s has it been re-evaluated for its importance within nineteenth-century British art.

Poetry

Main article: Poetry of Catullus
See also: List of poems by Catullus
Catullus et in eum commentarius (1554)
Catullus et in eum commentarius (1554)

Sources and organization

Catullus's poems have been preserved in an anthology of 116 carmina (the actual number of poems may slightly vary in various editions), which can be divided into three parts according to their form: sixty short poems in varying meters, called polymetra, eight longer poems, and forty-eight epigrams.

There is no scholarly consensus on whether Catullus himself arranged the order of the poems. The longer poems differ from the polymetra and the epigrams not only in length but also in their subjects: There are seven hymns and one mini-epic, or epyllion, the most highly prized form for the "new poets".

The polymetra and the epigrams can be divided into four major thematic groups (ignoring a rather large number of poems that elude such categorization):

  • poems to and about his friends (e.g., an invitation like poem 13).
  • erotic poems: some of them (eg. (50, 9, 99) etc. are about his attraction toward other men, but others are about women, especially about one he calls "Lesbia" (which served as a false name for his married girlfriend, Clodia, source and inspiration of many of his poems). In modern terms, he would likely be called bisexual, though the Romans had no labels such as this.
  • invectives: often rude and sometimes downright obscene poems targeted at friends-turned-traitors (e.g., poem 16), other lovers of Lesbia, well-known poets, politicians (e.g., Julius Caesar) and rhetors, including Cicero.
  • condolences: some poems of Catullus are solemn in nature. 96 comforts a friend in the death of a loved one; several others, most famously 101, lament the death of his brother.

All these poems describe the lifestyle of Catullus and his friends, who, despite Catullus's temporary political post in Bithynia, lived their lives withdrawn from politics. They were interested mainly in poetry and love. Above all other qualities, Catullus seems to have valued venustas, or charm, in his acquaintances, a theme which he explores in a number of his poems. The ancient Roman concept of virtus (i.e., of virtue that had to be proved by a political or military career), which Cicero suggested as the solution to the societal problems of the late Republic, meant little to them.

However Catullus does not reject traditional notions, but rather their particular application to the vita activa of politics and war. Indeed, he tries to reinvent these notions from a personal point of view and to introduce them into human relationships. For example, he applies the word fides, which traditionally meant faithfulness towards one's political allies, to his relationship with Lesbia and reinterprets it as unconditional faithfulness in love. So, despite the seeming frivolity of his lifestyle, Catullus measured himself and his friends by quite ambitious standards.

Intellectual influences

Lesbia, 1878 painting by John Reinhard Weguelin inspired by the poems of Catullus
Lesbia, 1878 painting by John Reinhard Weguelin inspired by the poems of Catullus

Catullus's poetry was influenced by the innovative poetry of the Hellenistic Age, and especially by Callimachus and the Alexandrian school, which had propagated a new style of poetry that deliberately turned away from the classical epic poetry in the tradition of Homer. Cicero called these local innovators neoteroi (νεώτεροι) or "moderns" (in Latin poetae novi or 'new poets'), in that they cast off the heroic model handed down from Ennius in order to strike new ground and ring a contemporary note. Catullus and Callimachus did not describe the feats of ancient heroes and gods (except perhaps in re-evaluating and predominantly artistic circumstances, e.g. poems 63 and 64), focusing instead on small-scale personal themes. Although these poems sometimes seem quite superficial and their subjects often are mere everyday concerns, they are accomplished works of art. Catullus described his work as expolitum, or polished, to show that the language he used was very carefully and artistically composed.

Catullus was also an admirer of Sappho, a female poet of the seventh century BCE. Catullus 51 partly translates, partly imitates, and transforms Sappho 31. Some hypothesize that 61 and 62 were perhaps inspired by lost works of Sappho but this is purely speculative. Both of the latter are epithalamia, a form of laudatory or erotic wedding-poetry that Sappho was famous for. Catullus twice used a meter that Sappho was known for, called the Sapphic stanza, in poems 11 and 51, perhaps prompting his successor Horace's interest in the form.

Catullus, as was common to his era, was greatly influenced by stories from Greek and Roman myth. His longer poems—such as 63, 64, 65, 66, and 68—allude to mythology in various ways. Some stories he refers to are the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, the departure of the Argonauts, Theseus and the Minotaur, Ariadne's abandonment, Tereus and Procne, as well as Protesilaus and Laodamia.

Style

Catullus wrote in many different meters including hendecasyllabic verse and elegiac couplets (common in love poetry). A great part of his poetry shows strong and occasionally wild emotions, especially in regard to Lesbia (e.g., poems 5 and 7). His love poems are very emotional and ardent, and are relatable to this day. Catullus describes his Lesbia as having multiple suitors and often showing little affection towards him. He also demonstrates a great sense of humour such as in Catullus 13.

Musical settings

Catullus Dreams (2011) is a song cycle by David Glaser set to texts of Catullus. The cycle is scored for soprano and seven instruments. It was premiered at Symphony Space in New York by soprano Linda Larson and Sequitur Ensemble.

Catulli Carmina is a cantata by Carl Orff set to the texts of Catullus.

"Carmina Catulli" is a song cycle arranged from 17 of Catullus's poems by American composer Michael Linton. The cycle was recorded in December 2013 and premiered at Carnegie Hall's Weill Recital Hall in March 2014 by French baritone Edwin Crossley-Mercer and pianist Jason Paul Peterson.[9][10][11]

Dutch composer Bertha Tideman-Wijers used Catullus's text for her composition Variations on Valerius "Where that one already turns or turns."[12]

Catullus 5, the love poem "Vivamus mea Lesbia atque amemus", in the translation by Ben Jonson, was set to music[13] (lute accompanied song) by Alfonso Ferrabosco the younger. Thomas Campion also wrote a lute-song using his own translation of the first six lines of Catullus 5 followed by two verses of his own. The translation by Richard Crashaw was set to music[14] in a four-part glee by Samuel Webbe Jr. It was also set to music[15] in a three-part glee by John Stafford Smith. The Hungarian born British composer Matyas Seiber set poem 31 for unaccompanied mixed chorus Sirmio in 1957. Finnish jazz singer Reine Rimón has recorded poems of Catullus set to standard jazz tunes.

The American composer Ned Rorem set Catullus 101 to music for voice and piano. The song, "Catallus: on the Burial of His Brother", was originally published in 1969.

The Icelandic composer Jóhann Jóhannsson set Catullus 85 to music. The poem is sung through a vocoder. The music is played by a string quartet and piano. Titled "Odi Et Amo", the song is found on Jóhannsson's album Englabörn.

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Poetry of Catullus

Poetry of Catullus

The poetry of Gaius Valerius Catullus was written towards the end of the Roman Republic. It describes the lifestyle of the poet and his friends, as well as, most famously, his love for the woman he calls Lesbia.

List of poems by Catullus

List of poems by Catullus

This article lists the poems of Catullus and their various properties.

Anthology

Anthology

In book publishing, an anthology is a collection of literary works chosen by the compiler; it may be a collection of plays, poems, short stories, songs or excerpts by different authors.

Epigram

Epigram

An epigram is a brief, interesting, memorable, and sometimes surprising or satirical statement. The word is derived from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα epígramma "inscription" from ἐπιγράφειν epigráphein "to write on, to inscribe", and the literary device has been employed for over two millennia.

Hymn

Hymn

A hymn is a type of song, and partially synonymous with devotional song, specifically written for the purpose of adoration or prayer, and typically addressed to a deity or deities, or to a prominent figure or personification. The word hymn derives from Greek ὕμνος (hymnos), which means "a song of praise". A writer of hymns is known as a hymnist. The singing or composition of hymns is called hymnody. Collections of hymns are known as hymnals or hymn books. Hymns may or may not include instrumental accompaniment.

Epic poetry

Epic poetry

An epic poem, or simply an epic, is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants.

Lesbia

Lesbia

Lesbia was the literary pseudonym used by the Roman poet Gaius Valerius Catullus to refer to his lover. Lesbia is traditionally identified with Clodia, the wife of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer and sister of Publius Clodius Pulcher; her conduct and motives are maligned in Cicero's extant speech Pro Caelio, delivered in 56 BC.

Clodia (wife of Metellus)

Clodia (wife of Metellus)

Clodia, nicknamed Quadrantaria, Nola, Medea Palatina by Cicero, and occasionally referred to in scholarship as Clodia Metelli, was one of three known daughters of the ancient Roman patrician Appius Claudius Pulcher.

Invective

Invective

Invective is abusive, reproachful, or venomous language used to express blame or censure; or, a form of rude expression or discourse intended to offend or hurt; vituperation, or deeply seated ill will, vitriol. The Latin adjective invectivus means 'scolding.'

Catullus 16

Catullus 16

Catullus 16 or Carmen 16 is a poem by Gaius Valerius Catullus. The poem, written in a hendecasyllabic (11-syllable) meter, was considered to be so sexually explicit following its rediscovery in the following centuries that a full English translation was not published until the 20th century. The first line, Pēdīcābo ego vōs et irrumābō, sometimes used as a title, has been called "one of the filthiest expressions ever written in Latin—or in any other language".

Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar

Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and subsequently became dictator from 49 BC until his assassination in 44 BC. He played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire.

Cultural depictions

  • The 1888 play Lesbia by Richard Davey depicts the relationship between Catullus and Lesbia, based on incidents from his poems.[16][17]
  • Catullus was the main protagonist of the historical novel Farewell, Catullus (1953) by Pierson Dixon. The novel shows the corruption of Roman society.[18][19]
  • W. G. Hardy's novel The City of Libertines (1957) tells the fictionalized story of Catullus and a love affair during the time of Julius Caesar. The Financial Post described the book as "an authentic story of an absorbing era".[20]
  • A poem by Catullus is being recited to Cleopatra in the eponymous 1963 film when Julius Caesar comes to visit her; they talk about him (Cleopatra: 'Catullus doesn't approve of you. Why haven't you had him killed?' Caesar: 'Because I approve of him.') and Caesar then recites other poems by him.
  • The American poet Louis Zukofsky in 1969 wrote a set of homophonic translations of Catullus that attempted in English to replicate the sound as primary emphasis, rather than the more common emphasis on sense of the originals (although the relationship between sound and sense there is often misrepresented and has been clarified by careful study); his Catullus versions have had extensive influence on contemporary innovative poetry and homophonic translation, including the work of poets Robert Duncan, Robert Kelly, and Charles Bernstein.
  • Catullus is the protagonist of Tom Holland's 1995 novel Attis.
  • Catullus appears in Steven Saylor's novel The Venus Throw as the embittered ex lover of Clodia, sister of Publius Clodius Pulcher, whom he calls Lesbia.

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Lesbia (play)

Lesbia (play)

Lesbia is a one-act play written by Richard Davey. The story is a comedy about the relationship between the Roman poet Catullus and his lover Lesbia. The actor-manager Richard Mansfield staged the play at the Lyceum Theatre in London, where it debuted on 17 September 1888 with Beatrice Cameron as Lesbia. Mansfield later took the play to the United States as part of the repertory of his company.

Pierson Dixon

Pierson Dixon

Sir Pierson John Dixon was a British diplomat and writer. He was known to be a firm believer in the value of diplomacy to solve international issues.

Roman Empire

Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia, and was ruled by emperors. From the accession of Caesar Augustus as the first Roman emperor to the military anarchy of the 3rd century, it was a Principate with Italia as the metropole of its provinces and the city of Rome as its sole capital. The Empire was later ruled by multiple emperors who shared control over the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. The city of Rome remained the nominal capital of both parts until AD 476 when the imperial insignia were sent to Constantinople following the capture of the Western capital of Ravenna by the Germanic barbarians. The adoption of Christianity as the state church of the Roman Empire in AD 380 and the fall of the Western Roman Empire to Germanic kings conventionally marks the end of classical antiquity and the beginning of the Middle Ages. Because of these events, along with the gradual Hellenization of the Eastern Roman Empire, historians distinguish the medieval Roman Empire that remained in the Eastern provinces as the Byzantine Empire.

Financial Post

Financial Post

The Financial Post was an English Canadian business newspaper, which published from 1907 to 1998. In 1998, the publication was folded into the new National Post, although the name Financial Post has been retained as the banner for that paper's business section and also lives on in the Post's monthly business magazine, Financial Post Business.

Cleopatra

Cleopatra

Cleopatra VII Philopator was Queen of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt from 51 to 30 BC, and its last active ruler. A member of the Ptolemaic dynasty, she was a descendant of its founder Ptolemy I Soter, a Macedonian Greek general and companion of Alexander the Great. After the death of Cleopatra, Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire, marking the end of the last Hellenistic state in the Mediterranean and of the age that had lasted since the reign of Alexander. Although her first language was Koine Greek, she was the only Ptolemaic ruler to learn and use the Egyptian language.

Cleopatra (1963 film)

Cleopatra (1963 film)

Cleopatra is a 1963 American epic historical drama film directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz, with a screenplay adapted by Mankiewicz, Ranald MacDougall and Sidney Buchman from the 1957 book The Life and Times of Cleopatra by Carlo Maria Franzero, and from histories by Plutarch, Suetonius, and Appian. The film stars Elizabeth Taylor in the eponymous role. Richard Burton, Rex Harrison, Roddy McDowall, and Martin Landau are featured in supporting roles. It chronicles the struggles of Cleopatra, the young queen of Egypt, to resist the imperial ambitions of Rome.

Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar

Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and subsequently became dictator from 49 BC until his assassination in 44 BC. He played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire.

Louis Zukofsky

Louis Zukofsky

Louis Zukofsky was an American poet. He was the primary instigator and theorist of the so-called "Objectivist" poets, a short lived collective of poets who after several decades of obscurity would reemerge around 1960 and become a significant influence on subsequent generations of poets in America and abroad.

Homophonic translation

Homophonic translation

Homophonic translation renders a text in one language into a near-homophonic text in another language, usually with no attempt to preserve the original meaning of the text. In one homophonic translation, for example, the English "sat on a wall" is rendered as French "s'étonne aux Halles" [setɔn o al]. More generally, homophonic transformation renders a text into a near-homophonic text in the same or another language: e.g., "recognize speech" could become "wreck a nice beach".

Robert Duncan (poet)

Robert Duncan (poet)

Robert Edward Duncan was an American poet and a devotee of Hilda "H.D." Doolittle and the Western esoteric tradition who spent most of his career in and around San Francisco. Though associated with any number of literary traditions and schools, Duncan is often identified with the poets of the New American Poetry and Black Mountain College. Duncan saw his work as emerging especially from the tradition of Pound, Williams and Lawrence. Duncan was a key figure in the San Francisco Renaissance.

Robert Kelly (poet)

Robert Kelly (poet)

Robert Kelly is an American poet associated with the deep image group. He is the 2016-2017 Poet Laureate of Dutchess County, New York.

Charles Bernstein (poet)

Charles Bernstein (poet)

Charles Bernstein is an American poet, essayist, editor, and literary scholar. Bernstein is the Donald T. Regan Professor, Emeritus, Department of English at the University of Pennsylvania. He is one of the most prominent members of the L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E or Language poets. In 2006 he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. and in 2019 he was awarded the Bollingen Prize from Yale University, the premiere American prize for lifetime achievement, given on the occasion of the publication of Near/Miss. Bernstein was David Gray Professor of Poetry and Poetics at SUNY-Buffalo from 1990 to 2003, where he co-founded the Poetics Program. A volume of Bernstein's selected poetry from the past thirty years, All the Whiskey in Heaven, was published in 2010 by Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. The Salt Companion to Charles Bernstein was published in 2012 by Salt Publishing.

Source: "Catullus", Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, (2023, March 6th), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catullus.

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Further Reading

Catulli Carmina

Clodia (wife of Metellus)

Pro Caelio

Lesbia

Catullus 1

Catullus 3

Catullus 2

Catullus 8

Poetry of Catullus

Catullus 42

List of bibliographies of works on Catullus
See also
References
  1. ^ The bust was commissioned in 1935 by Sirmione's mayor, Luigi Trojani, and produced by the Milanese foundry Clodoveo Barzaghi with the assistance of the sculptor Villarubbia Norri (N. Criniti & M. Arduino (eds.), Catullo e Sirmione. Società e cultura della Cisalpina alle soglie dell'impero (Brescia: Grafo, 1994), p. 4).
  2. ^ Skinner, Marilyn B. (2010). A Companion to Catullus. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 481. ISBN 9781444339253. Retrieved July 13, 2019.
  3. ^ a b c d e Gaius Valerius Catullus. www.BookRags.com. Retrieved September 13, 2014.
  4. ^ M. Skinner, "Authorial Arrangement of the Collection", pp. 46–48, in: A Companion to Catullus, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007.
  5. ^ Suetonius Divus Iulius 73".
  6. ^ Howe, Quincy Jr. (1970). Introduction to Catullus, The Complete Poems for American Readers. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc. pp. vii to xvii.
  7. ^ M. Skinner, "Introduction", p.3, in: A Companion to Catullus, Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
  8. ^ T.P. Wiseman, "The Valerii Catulli of Verona", in: M. Skinner, ed., A Companion to Catullus, Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
  9. ^ McMurtry, Chris (August 19, 2014). "New Release: Linton: Carmina Catulli". RefinersFire. Archived from the original on October 8, 2014. Retrieved October 8, 2014.
  10. ^ "LINTON: Carmina Catulli". www.operanews.com.
  11. ^ "Priape, Lesbie, Diane et caetera - Forum Opéra". www.forumopera.com.
  12. ^ "ccm :: Tideman Wijers, Bertha Tideman Wijers". composers-classical-music.com. Retrieved July 12, 2021.
  13. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 5, 2011. Retrieved August 20, 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  14. ^ "Come and let us live : Samuel Webbe Jr. (c. 1770–1843) : Music score" (PDF). Cpdl.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 10, 2022. Retrieved March 16, 2019.
  15. ^ "Let us, my Lesbia, live and love : John Stafford Smith (1750-1836) : Music score" (PDF). Cpdl.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 10, 2022. Retrieved March 16, 2019.
  16. ^ "Our Play-Box: Lesbia". The Theatre. November 1, 1888. pp. 256–257.
  17. ^ "Amusements: Lesbia". The New York Times. October 9, 1890. p. 4 – via Newspapers.com.
  18. ^ Dixon, Pierson (1954). Farewell, Catullus – via Biblio.com.
  19. ^ Reine Rimón and her Hot Papas jazz band; Gregg Stafford; Tuomo Pekkanen; Gaius Valerius Catullus, Variationes iazzicae Catullianae (in Latin), retrieved October 7, 2013
  20. ^ "The City of Libertines by W. G. Hardy". Winnipeg Free Press. Winnipeg, Manitoba. December 7, 1957. p. 38.icon of an open green padlock
Further reading
Further information: List of bibliographies of works on Catullus
  • Balme, M.; Morwood, J (1997). Oxford Latin Reader. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Balmer, J. (2004). Catullus: Poems of Love and Hate. Hexham: Bloodaxe.
  • Barrett, A. A. (1972). "Catullus 52 and the Consulship of Vatinius". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 103: 23–38. doi:10.2307/2935964. JSTOR 2935964.
  • Barwick, K. (1958). "Zyklen bei Martial und in den kleinen Gedichten des Catull". Philologus. 102 (1–2): 284–318. doi:10.1524/phil.1958.102.12.284. S2CID 164713202.
  • Calinski, T. (2021). Catull in Bild und Ton - Untersuchungen zur Catull-Rezeption in Malerei und Komposition. Darmstadt: WBG Academic
  • Claes, P. (2002). Concatenatio Catulliana, A New Reading of the Carmina. Amsterdam: J.C. Gieben
  • Clarke, Jacqueline (2006). "Bridal Songs: Catullan Epithalamia and Prudentius Peristephanon 3". Antichthon. 40: 89–103. doi:10.1017/S0066477400001672. S2CID 142365904.
  • Coleman, K.M. (1981). "The persona of Catullus' Phaselus". Greece & Rome. N.S. 28: 68–72. doi:10.1017/s0017383500033507. S2CID 162206320.
  • Dettmer, Helena (1997). Love by the Numbers: Form and the Meaning in the poetry of Catullus. Peter Lang Publishing.
  • Deuling, Judy (2006). "Catullus 17 and 67, and the Catullan Construct". Antichthon. 40: 1–9. doi:10.1017/S0066477400001611. S2CID 145585439.
  • Dorey, T.A. (1959). "The Aurelii and the Furii". Proceedings of the African Classical Associations. 2: 9–10.
  • Duhigg, J. (1971). "The Elegiac Metre of Catullus". Antichthon. 5: 57–67. doi:10.1017/S0066477400004111. S2CID 148299423.
  • Ellis, R. (1889). A Commentary on Catullus. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  • Ferguson, J. (1963). "Catullus and Martial". Proceedings of the African Classical Associations. 6: 3–15.
  • Ferguson, J. (1988). Catullus. Greece & Rome: New Surveys in the Classics. Vol. 20. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  • Ferrero, L. (1955). Interpretazione di Catullo (in Italian). Torino: Torino, Rosenberg & Sellier.
  • Fitzgerald, W. (1995). Catullan Provocations; Lyric Poetry and the Drama of Position. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Fletcher, G.B.A. (1967). "Catulliana". Latomus. 26: 104–106.
  • Fletcher, G.B.A. (1991). "Further Catulliana". Latomus. 50: 92–93.
  • Fordyce, C.J. (1961). Catullus, A Commentary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Gaisser, Julia Haig (1993). Catullus And His Renaissance Readers. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  • Greene, Ellen (2006). "Catullus, Caesar and the Roman Masculine Identity". Antichthon. 40: 49–64. doi:10.1017/S0066477400001659. S2CID 140827803.
  • Hallett, Judith (2006). "Catullus and Horace on Roman Women Poets". Antichthon. 40: 65–88. doi:10.1017/S0066477400001660. S2CID 140917675.
  • Harrington, Karl Pomeroy (1963). Catullus and His Influence. New York: Cooper Square Publishers.
  • Havelock, E.A. (1939). The Lyric Genius of Catullus. Oxford: B. Blackwell.
  • Hild, Christian (2013). Liebesgedichte als Wagnis. Emotionen und generationelle Prozesse in Catulls Lesbiagedichten. St. Ingbert: Röhrig. ISBN 978-3-86110-517-6.
  • Jackson, Anna (2006). "Catullus in the Playground". Antichthon. 40: 104–116. doi:10.1017/S0066477400001684. S2CID 142720674.
  • Kaggelaris, N. (2015), "Wedding Cry: Sappho (Fr. 109 LP, Fr. 104(a) LP)- Catullus (c. 62. 20-5)- modern greek folk songs" [in Greek] in Avdikos, E.- Koziou-Kolofotia, B. (ed.) Modern Greek folk songs and history, Karditsa, pp. 260–70 [1]
  • Kidd, D.A. (1970). "Some Problems in Catullus LXVI". Antichthon. 4: 38–49. doi:10.1017/S0066477400004007. S2CID 147666304.
  • Kokoszkiewicz, Konrad W. (2004). "Et futura panda sive de Catulli carmine sexto corrigendo". Hermes. 32: 125–128.
  • Kroll, Wilhelm (1929). C. Valerius Catullus (in German). Leipzig: B.G. Teubner.
  • Maas, Paul (1942). "The Chronology of the Poems of Catullus". Classical Quarterly. 36 (1–2): 79–82. doi:10.1017/s0009838800024605. S2CID 170577777.
  • Martin, Charles (1992). Catullus. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press. ISBN 0-300-05199-9.
  • Munro, H.A.J. (1878). Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus. Cambridge: Deighton, Bell and co.
  • Newman, John Kevin (1990). Roman Catullus and the Modification of the Alexandrian Sensibility. Hildesheim: Weidmann.
  • Quinn, Kenneth (1959). The Catullan Revolution. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press.
  • Quinn, Kenneth (1973). Catullus: The Poems (2nd ed.). London: Macmillan.
  • Radici Colace, P., Il poeta si diverte. Orazio, Catullo e due esempi di poesia non seria, Giornale Italiano di Filologia XVI [XXXVII] 1, 1985, pp. 53–71.
  • Radici Colace, P., Parodie catulliane, ovvero "quando il poeta si diverte", Giornale Italiano di Filologia, XXXIX - 1, 1987, 39-57.
  • Radici Colace, P., Tra ripetizione, struttura e ri-uso: il C. 30 di Catullo, in Atti 175° anniversario Liceo Ginnasio Statale "T. Campanella", Reggio Calabria 1989, 137-142.
  • Radici Colace, P., Mittente-messaggio-destinatario in Catullo tra autobiografia e problematica dell'interpretazione, in AA.VV., Atti del Convegno ― La componente autobiografica nella poesia greca e latina fra realtà e artificio letterario - Pisa 16-17 maggio 1991, Pisa 1992, 1-13.
  • Radici Colace, P., La "parola" e il "segno". Il rapporto mittente-destinatario e il problema dell'interpretazione in Catullo, Messana n.s.15, 1993, 23-44.
  • Radici Colace, P., Riuso e parodia in Catullo, Atti del Convegno su Forme della parodia, parodia delle forme nel mondo greco e latino, (Napoli 9 maggio 1995) ―A.I.O.N.‖ XVIII, 1996, 155-167.
  • Radici Colace, P., Innografia e parodia innografica in Catullo, in ―Paideia‖ LXIV, 2009, 553-561
  • Rothstein, Max (1923). "Catull und Lesbia". Philologus. 78 (1–2): 1–34. doi:10.1515/phil-1922-1-203. S2CID 164356664.
  • Small, Stuart G.P. (1983). Catullus. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America. ISBN 0-8191-2905-4.
  • Swann, Bruce W. (1994). Martial's Catullus. The Reception of an Epigrammatic Rival. Hildesheim: Georg Olms.
  • Thomson, Douglas Ferguson Scott (1997). Catullus: Edited with a Textual and Interpretative Commentary. Phoenix. Vol. 34: suppl. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-0676-0.
  • Townend, G.B. (1980). "A Further Point in Catullus' attack on Volusius". Greece & Rome. n.s. 27 (2): 134–136. doi:10.1017/s0017383500025791. S2CID 163057658.
  • Townend, G.B. (1983). "The Unstated Climax of Catullus 64". Greece & Rome. n.s. 30: 21–30. doi:10.1017/s0017383500026437. S2CID 161731074.
  • Tesoriero, Charles (2006). "Hidden Kisses in Catullus: Poems 5, 6, 7 and 8". Antichthon. 40: 10–18. doi:10.1017/S0066477400001623. S2CID 145676407.
  • Tuplin, C.J. (1981). "Catullus 68". Classical Quarterly. n.s. 31: 113–139. doi:10.1017/s000983880002111x. S2CID 187104503.
  • Uden, James (2006). "Embracing the Young Man in Love: Catullus 75 and the Comic Adulescens". Antichthon. 40: 19–34. doi:10.1017/S0066477400001635. S2CID 142740848.
  • Watson, Lindsay C. (2003). "Bassa's Borborysms: on Martial and Catullus". Antichthon. 37: 1–12. doi:10.1017/S0066477400001386. S2CID 140932135.
  • Watson, Lindsay C. (2006). "Catullus and the Poetics of Incest". Antichthon. 40: 35–48. doi:10.1017/S0066477400001647. S2CID 141549179.
  • Wheeler, A. L. (1934). Catullus and the Traditions of Ancient Poetry. Sather Classical Lectures. Vol. 9. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Wilamowitz-Möllendorf, Ulrich von (1913). Sappho und Simonides (in German). Berlin: Weidmann.
  • Wiseman, T. P. (1969). Catullan Questions. Leicester: Leicester University Press.
  • Wiseman, T. P. (2002). Catullus and His World: A Reappraisal (1st pbk. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31968-4.
  • Wiseman, T. P. (1974). Cinna the poet and other Roman essays. Leicester: Leicester University Press. ISBN 0-7185-1120-4.
External links
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